tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-22542102075794237212024-03-13T13:33:01.016-07:00www.gaer.my.idbhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12195521207586191206noreply@blogger.comBlogger77125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-89260458227815643102013-11-21T15:37:00.004-08:002013-11-21T15:39:39.412-08:00International students are a formidable presence in this country and a resource that we should be grateful to have.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<img alt="International Education Week Rolled" border="0" height="452" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Ma5et4mUUeo/Uo6Yin9SMAI/AAAAAAAACEk/CjQguPzV0qw/s640/Cultures.jpg" title="Thanks giving Tables" width="640" /></div>
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November is a time when we Americans are thankful and celebrate with family and friends. Many of the guests around American Thanksgiving tables this year will be international students visiting the U.S. on exchange <a href="http://nyomanmedia.com/" target="_blank">programs</a>, study abroad, and other educational visits. International students are a formidable presence in this country and a resource that we should be grateful to have.</h2>
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As<a href="http://nyomanmedia.com/" target="_blank"> <span style="font-size: large;">International Education</span></a> Week rolled out on November 12, an important annual report was released on global education trends, called "Open Doors." Compiled by the Institute of International Education, a Washington, D.C.-based nonprofit, the survey provides a window onto the world through the lens of numbers of international students coming to the United States (and numbers of American students going abroad).<br />
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In an era of competitiveness, these numbers matter. Many Americans may be shocked to learn that the presence of international students in the United States generates about $22 billion from tuition, living expenses, and other educational receipts each year.<br />
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The "Open Doors" report is a barometer of foreign interest in studying in American colleges and universities. According to the new document, 2012-2013 saw an increase in international students in the U.S. of 7.2 percent, to 819,644 students from 764,495 students in 2011-2012.<br />
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Last year's numbers had represented a 5.7 percent increase over the 2010-2011 tallies. The number of international students in the U.S. has risen nearly 40 percent over the past decade.<br />
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Sadly, the number of U.S. students who choose to go abroad, often in their junior year, pales in comparison to inbound students. In the 2011-2012 academic year, a record high 283,332 U.S. students studied abroad, an increase of 3.4 percent over the previous year.<br />
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Beyond Economics<br />
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The impacts of studying abroad go far deeper than just economics. In addition to attending college programs, young people often come to the U.S. as teenagers on summer programs or high school exchanges and then go back to their home countries enamored with America and empowered to work in their local communities on vital issues that affect all of us like climate change, poverty, extremism, health, and peace. Young people everywhere crave knowledge about the world and ways to turn that knowledge into meaningful action.<br />
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Programs for international students tend to emphasize community service, and many require volunteer hours for participants. Since volunteering isn't a custom everywhere, many international students tend to do their first service in the U.S., often alongside Americans. They see civic responsibility models in action, which inspires them to do something when they go home.<br />
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As adults later, those same kids who came to the U.S. often start nonprofits or foundations, or become leaders of companies or in government—and remain friendly to America. The peacebuilding work these people learned on exchange programs can make the difference on critical issues that affect their home communities or conflict with other countries.<br />
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Positive Examples<br />
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Here are a few examples of young people who came to America as high school students for short-term exchanges and programs—two to five weeks—and then returned home to make a difference:<br />
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• In Brazil, 18-year-old Renato has started an organization called React and Change, a youth-led organization committed to combatting gender inequality and youth apathy.<br />
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• In Serbia, Ester, Maja, and Zsuzsanna raised money at a music event to build a new children's wing at their local hospital.<br />
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• In Iraq, Saif, Salah, and Mina organized literacy and environmental awareness projects in elementary schools.<br />
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• In Mexico, Karla and Gustavo organized workshops on bullying and self-esteem for peers, in an effort to reduce youth violence and drug use.<br />
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• In Libya, 17-year-old Amera is giving workshops on breast cancer and women's health.<br />
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Experiential learning through exchanges has resulted in a worldwide network of such individuals and organizations, who are committed to leadership and citizenship. At a time when the global, cultural, and language content taught in many schools is dwindling, these exchange programs bring the world into our homes, schools, and communities, enhancing learning and fostering understanding.<br />
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These same principles apply to many study abroad experiences. Regardless of what topic students choose—environmental studies, cultural discovery, human rights, language immersion—they all point to experiential learning as the key to building long-term commitments to positive change in society.<br />
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Despite the growth of <span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://nyomanmedia.com/" target="_blank">Internet</a></span> informal education and the attention to MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses), students coming to America and American students going overseas, in person, create bonds that expand the global educational process and forge networks that benefit all of us. The face-to-face connections and relationship building is still vital for breaking down stereotypes and building friendships that can last a lifetime.<br />
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International students are a blessing, and we thank them for being agents of change and for making the world a bit safer, more prosperous, and more peaceful.<br />
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Christina Thomas is the Director of Operations for Youth Programs at World Learning and The Experiment in International Living. Simon Norton is Program Director of World Learning Youth Programs in Vermont. World Learning is a global organization working in 60 countries to empower a new generation of global leaders through study abroad and exchange programs.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-13163960142481645772012-11-22T03:37:00.004-08:002013-11-21T15:24:48.987-08:00Aboriginal Tours, Art Galleries and Cultures centres<br />
There are some truly wonderful <a href="http://www.travel.nyomanmedia.com/" target="_blank">tours</a>, art and cultural centres that explore Australian Aboriginal culture, both in Sydney and throughout New South Wales, exploring traditional lifestyle, music and dance, as well as Bush Tucker, the name for traditional Aboriginal foods. Below is a sampling:<br />
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Sydney<br />
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Tribal Warrior<br />
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Take an Aboriginal cultural cruise on Sydney Harbour with Tribal Warrior. Tour operators entertain visitors with stories of the Eora, Cadigal, Guringai, Wangal, Gammeraigal and Wallumedegal peoples.<br />
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Visitors step ashore on one the islands on Sydney Harbour to experience a traditional welcoming ceremony. You can learn about the Aboriginal names and meanings of significant Sydney landmarks and about traditional fishing methods. Cruises depart Tuesday to Saturday, 12.45pm from the Eastern Pontoon, Circular Quay. The vessels Tribal Warrior and Deerubbun are also available for charter. Bookings are Essential. Phone 02 9699 3491 Tribal Warrior.<br />
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Blue Mountains Walkabout<br />
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Blue Mountains Walkabout is Aboriginal owned and guided, and it follows the Darug songline through the mountains. Visitors learn by following a traditional walkabout song line. A certain level of fitness is required, the full-day adventure includes challenging bushwalks with plenty of time to relax by crystal clear waterfalls and billabongs.<br />
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On the walkabout, you will be able to see traditional cave art and Dreaming stories carved in stone, ochre painting and try traditional bush tucker tasting. Blue Mountains Walkabout.<br />
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Yiribana Gallery<br />
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Yiribana Gallery, at the Art Gallery of New South Wales in Sydney, houses the largest permanent exhibition of indigenous Australian and Torres Strait Islander artwork in the world. Tours of Yiribana are conducted at 11am daily (except Mondays). Yiribana Gallery.<br />
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Gavala Aboriginal Art Gallery<br />
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Gavala Aboriginal Art Gallery, located at Darling Harbour in inner Sydney Central, is an Aboriginal-owned gallery and shop. Featuring authentic Australian indigenous art by significant indigenous artists, the gallery deals directly with the artists and their communities.<br />
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You can also find for sale didgeridoos, boomerangs, masks, statues and music. Gavala Aboriginal Art Centre, Harbourside, Darling Harbour, Phone 9212 7232 Gavala Aboriginal Art Centre.<br />
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Boomalli Gallery<br />
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Boomalli Gallery delivers a regular exhibition program highlighting urban Aboriginal contemporary arts to regional, national and international audiences. As well as a full exhibition schedule, Boomalli provides a commissioning service and advises artists on such collaborations. Phone: +061 2 9560 2541. Gallery: 55 - 59 Flood Street Leichhardt, Sydney.<br />
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Muru Mittigar<br />
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Muru Mittigar provides you with the opportunity to participate and interact with members of the local Aboriginal community. This is achieved by the educational and enriching cultural activities that they offer. Traditional Aboriginal dancing, Aboriginal Art, a Cultural <a href="http://www.travel.nyomanmedia.com/" target="_blank">Museum</a> and lessons in Didjeridoo and Boomerang Throwing are some of the features. Phone: +61 2 47 292 377 Muru Mittigar.<br />
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New South Wales<br />
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Gamilarart<br />
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Located in Tamworth NSW, here Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal Artists have joined together to form this co-operative, featuring upcoming and established artists. Phone: 61 2 6761 3321 Gamilarart.<br />
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Umbarra Cultural Centre<br />
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Umbarra Cultural Centre, 375 km south of Sydney near Bermagui, gives visitors the chance to learn about the Yuin Aboriginal people. The centre runs guided 4WD tours to local sacred sites at Gulaga (Mount Dromedary) and Biamanga (Mumbulla Mountain).<br />
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A boat cruise on beautiful Wallaga Lake reveals many significant sacred sites, including shell middens and Merriman’s Island. Umbarra Cultural Centre.<br />
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Tobwabba Art Gallery and Studio<br />
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Tobwabba Art Gallery and Studio is an Aboriginalowned and operated art gallery and studio in Forster, near Port Stephens, 304 km northeast of Sydney. It displays work mainly produced by members of the Wallamba people. Merchandise ranges from jewellery, T-shirts and sarongs to boomerangs, didgeridoos and music sticks. Tobwabba Art Gallery and Studio.<br />
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Biame Art Gallery<br />
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Biame Art Gallery, based at Hunter Valley Gardens in Pokolbin, 162 km north of Sydney, sells authentic traditional and contemporary arts and crafts made by high profile Aboriginal artists from across Australia as well as locals the Hunter Valley Region. The shop is located in The Village, a small collaboration of retail outlets. Biame Art Gallery.<br />
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Harry Nanya Tours<br />
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Harry Nanya Tours is an accredited Australian Aboriginal-owned and operated multi-award winning business, running half day, full day and overnight tours to Mungo National Park, 1050 km southwest of Sydney. The qualified guides belong to the local Barkindji people who have passed down their history and legends from generation to generation. Harry Nanya Tours.<br />
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NSW National Parks<br />
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A growing number of NSW National Parks and Reserves are being successfully preserved with co administration from the NSW government and Aboriginal Tribal Councils. There are Discovery Tours available, including the Aboriginal Discovery Program, giving you further chances to learn about Aboriginal Culture and Heritage.<br />
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Photo on the Top of Page: Guided tour of Aboriginal art with Badger Bates, Mutawintji National Park, Outback NSW. Badger Bates is a Broken Hill artist, Aboriginal Elder and Senior Archeological Officer for the NPWS, Broken Hill.<br />
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<a href="http://www.travel.nyomanmedia.com/" target="_blank">Call</a> the National Parks Centre for more info at 1300 361 967. See more about NSW National Parks Tourist Information and about the National Parks and reserves in the Sydney Region Sydney Parks Tourist Information.<br />
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Supporting Aboriginal Artists<br />
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Please support Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait artists by purchasing only genuine original art, indicated by label.<br />
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Melbourne is definitely a city worth exploring - it is Australia’s events capital, its sporting hub and its cultural heartland, home to great theatre, music, nightlife and restaurants. Peel back the layers to uncover a place that’s constantly on the move - from the ever-changing bar scene to a non-stop rollcall of international events.<br />
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It is said people here are a little more snobby, but its probably they have a better sense of dress and are more in touch with fashion. You can find great clothes designers, shoes and accessories here.<br />
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Melbourne Fashion<br />
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Melbourne is a treat for those interested in culture, entertainment, great Australian wines, festivals and fine dining restaurants.<br />
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Even the cafes and smaller eateries outdo each other, from the small bakery cafes to the fantastic family run dining cafes, serving authentic Thai, Italian, Greek and foods from over a hundred countries.<br />
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Melbourne Surrounds<br />
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Not far from the city, Victoria being such a compact state, are places to visit that offer history, from scenic small wineries and villages to the rural cities that thrived during the Gold Rush era.<br />
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The road to Melbourne is spectacular no matter which direction you approach the city. There is a route through the rugged Australian Alps; as well as the Princes Highway seaside route from Sydney, passing beautiful sandy beaches, national parks and coastal resorts.<br />
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The Hume Highway, from Canberra and Sydney, is lined with vineyards and fine wineries. From Adelaide, along the Great Ocean Road provides a showcase for some of Australia’s most dramatic scenery.<br />
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Visit Melbourne and Victoria! Youl’l love it!<br />
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Description: View from High Street, Northcote - Melbourne Australia CBD.<br />
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<a href="http://www.travel.nyomanmedia.com/" target="_blank">Hotels</a> in Melbourne Australia<br />
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You can find places to stay in throughout Melbourne Australia: luxury resorts and hotels to scenic campsites in Caravan Parks. Accommodation available includes a wide range of styles to suit almost any budget.<br />
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There are even Melbourne seaside resorts, conveniently located hotels, bed & breakfasts near the beach or in the city center or suburbs, caravan parks, serviced apartments and holiday homes.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-26640430744044332492012-11-22T03:31:00.002-08:002013-11-21T15:29:08.527-08:00The Place Of Sydney To Visit<br />
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Places of interest to go see and visit. Central Sydney CBD (Central Business District) Inner West Sydney, South Western Sydney, Western Sydney, Airport & Southern Sydney, The Hills to Hawkesbury Valley, Northern Suburbs & Beaches, Macarthur Region, Sydney City, East and other Sydney Suburbs to Visit.</div>
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See the Sydney Tourist Maps.</div>
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School Holidays: For the children, there are places in Sydney that have plenty of activities and other things to do during the School Holidays. There are beaches in Sydney that are close, such as Bondi, Bronte and Coogee as well as further north and south.</div>
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Sydney Shopping</div>
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Places to Shop are ever popular, including in the city center but also in the easily accessible suburbs such as Parramatta and Chatswood. See Sydney Shopping.</div>
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Sydney CBD Places (Inner City)</div>
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From Chinatown to Circular Quay, the Sydney CBD (Central Business District)is filled with things to do and see. See Sydney Places to Go.</div>
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Sydney CBD</div>
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Sydney City Map</div>
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Sydney Landmarks</div>
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Chinatown - Map</div>
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Sydney Airport - Map</div>
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Sydney Beaches</div>
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See more about finding a great beach along the Sydney coast Sydney Beaches. There are numerous beaches in Sydney while a scenic ferry ride from the city at Circular Quay gets you to Manly Beach.</div>
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The Royal National Park, history, swimming, surfing and hiking at the Cronulla Beaches.</div>
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Bondi Beach</div>
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Home to the one of the world’s oldest surf life saving clubs, Bondi Beach is the closest beach to the Sydney city centre (8kms).</div>
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Bondi Beach</div>
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Bondi Attractions</div>
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Manly Beach and the Sydney Northern Beaches</div>
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The city’s Seaside Resort, Manly Beach.</div>
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Manly Beach</div>
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Manly Beach Map</div>
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Sydney Northern Beaches</div>
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Sydney Northern Beaches Map</div>
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Sydney Harbour</div>
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Take a cruise, travel to Sydney outer parts on a ferry, tour one of the many islands, or just laze on a Sydney Harbour beach. See more about Sydney Harbour Cruises, Attractions - Places to Visit.</div>
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Inner City Suburbs</div>
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For those exploring greater Sydney, Newtown, Glebe, Paddington, Darlinghurst and Kings Cross are all suburbs close to the city and within easy reach.</div>
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Sydney Chinatown</div>
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Glebe Sydney</div>
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Kings Cross Sydney</div>
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Newtown Sydney</div>
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Oxford St, Darlinghurst Sydney</div>
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Paddington Sydney</div>
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The Rocks</div>
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As the landing place of 1400 men, women and children in 1788 (over half being convicts) The Rocks provide a fascinating look at Australian history.</div>
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The Rocks</div>
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The Rocks Attractions</div>
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Map of The Rocks</div>
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The Rocks 1855 Map</div>
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Darling Harbour</div>
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Darling Harbour boasts some of Australia’s finest museums and entertainment facilities as well as being a well known conference and exhibition centre. Just a 10 to 15 minute walk west of the Sydney city centre. There is also a light rail service from Central Station and Haymarket, as well as the monorail operating from stations in the city.</div>
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Darling Harbour</div>
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Darling Harbour Attractions</div>
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Darling Harbour Map</div>
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Sydney Outer Suburbs</div>
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City North Sydney</div>
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The northern region extends all the way to Manly, Pittwater, Port Hacking, Newcastle and to the wine growing region of the Hunter Valley.</div>
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Sydney North</div>
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North Attractions</div>
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Parramatta</div>
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Known for its historic colonial buildings, Parramatta also has a number of excellent restaurants and shopping.</div>
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Parramatta</div>
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Parramatta Attractions</div>
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Penrith Valley</div>
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Penrith Valley, about an hour from the Sydney city centre, is a city of open spaces and rural scenery with a stunning river and the spectacular Nepean Gorge, all at the foot of the Blue Mountains National Park.</div>
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Penrith</div>
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Penrith Attractions</div>
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Penrith Map</div>
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Sutherland Shire</div>
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Sutherland Shire in South Sydney has the beautiful Cronulla Beaches and is close to four National Parks, yet easily accessed from Sydney City Central.</div>
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Sutherland - South Sydney</div>
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Cronulla Beaches</div>
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Sutherland - South Sydney Map</div>
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South West Sydney</div>
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On the way to Wollongong and the south coast, the South West of Sydney, also known as the Macquarie Region, has country living at Camden only some 50 kms from the city center. Campbelltown has numerous historical buildings, each with their own story to tell.</div>
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Campbelltown NSW</div>
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Camden Sydney</div>
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Greater Sydney Map</div>
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Outer Sydney Surrounds</div>
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Nearby outer places of interest to see, go and visit. See also Sydney Surrounds and Sydney Suburbs.</div>
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Blue Mountains</div>
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The Blue Mountains offer Sydney’s most spectacular views and great walks in the bush.</div>
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The Blue Mountains</div>
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Blue Mountains Attractions</div>
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Blue Mountains Map</div>
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Central Coast Destinations</div>
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Within 3 hours drive, a great place for National Parks, boating, fishing and white sandy beaches - Visit the NSW Central Coast.</div>
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NSW Central Coast</div>
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Central Coast Map</div>
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Hunter Valley Destinations</div>
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The Hunter Valley is Australia’s oldest wine growing region. Also features some of the finest gourmet dining to be found anywhere in the state of NSW.</div>
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The Hunter Valley</div>
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Hunter Valley Map</div>
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Sydney Wine Tasting Tours</div>
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Coast of New South Wales Destinations</div>
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Central Coast NSW</div>
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Just north of Sydney lies the Central Coast of NSW. Although not far, it has some stunning scenery and great beaches. There are luxury resorts to caravan parks set in wonderful locations for families and everyone else who wants to escape busy Sydney.</div>
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North Coast NSW</div>
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Further north from the Central Coast, if you want long pristine beaches that seem to stretch forever, crystal clear streams in lush pastures, towering forests blanketing mountain ranges - Visit the NSW North Coast.</div>
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NSW North Coast</div>
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Map of East Coast NSW</div>
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North Coast Map NSW</div>
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Mid North Coast Map NSW</div>
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Far North Coast Map NSW</div>
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South Coast of NSW</div>
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Quaint villages nested on beaches by crystal-clear waters. Enjoy the beaches and lush bushlands as well as fine gourmet dining, art galleries, craft and antique shops, fishing and sports of the South Coast.</div>
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South Coast of NSW</div>
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South Coast NSW Map</div>
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Places in New South Wales Destinations</div>
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With so many tourists and business visitors coming to Sydney every year, few realise the joys of visiting the rest of this spectacular state of New South Wales NSW.</div>
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New South Wales</div>
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NSW Attractions</div>
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NSW Museums</div>
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NSW Maps</div>
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Places in Australia Tourist Destinations</div>
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Find places of interest and popular Australia tourist destinations, hotel and other accommodation, Australia tours, packages, restaurants, shopping, attractions, museums and information about Australia.</div>
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Australia Places to Visit</div>
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Australia Places of Interest</div>
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Melbourne Australia Best Places to Visit</div>
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NSW Aboriginal Tours, Art Galleries and Cultural Centres</div>
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Photo: Circular Quay and The Rocks, where Australia began as a Nation.</div>
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Places to Stay</div>
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<a href="http://www.nyomanmedia.com/" target="_blank">You can</a> find world class hotels to trendy backpackers in Australia. Bed and Breakfast, holiday apartment and home rentals are becoming increasingly popular as well.</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-57897864842430937782012-11-22T03:28:00.001-08:002012-11-22T03:28:42.082-08:00parliamentary triangle in canberra<br />
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Canberra - Being the Capital of Australia, Canberra has wonderful monuments, national buildings and a number of major attractions that make for a memorable visit to this city, not only for Australians but all world visitors.</div>
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Lake Burley Griffin</div>
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Centered around Lake Burley Griffin (Named after the designer of Canberra, Walter Burley Griffin), Capital Hill with Parliament House occupies the main apex of a triangle.</div>
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Parliament House: You can visit here, see where the politics of the Australian federal government are played out and see some deeply historic displays, including an authentic copy of the Magna Carta.</div>
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The other two corners are occupied by the Australian American Memorial, built to commemorate the alliance between the countries during WWII, while the other is a landscaped garden circle with the Australian Capital Territory flag, symbolizing the independence of the self governence of the ACT.</div>
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National Library of Australia</div>
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Just to the south, on the other side of Lake Burley Griffin, is the National Library of Australia and not far from there, in a clean line of sight from Parliament House is the Old Parliament House.</div>
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The older Parliament House was used till 1988 and built in 1927, when it was replaced by the new Parliament House in 1988. This historic building is now open to the public.</div>
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National Art Gallery</div>
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The National Art Gallery has one of the foremost collections of Australian art in the world. Not only does it have Aboriginal and colonial art, it also houses an extensive collection of European artworks.</div>
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Questacon</div>
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Questacon, a great place for kids and adults as well, is dedicated to the sciences and technology. With exhibitions and lots of hands on interactive displays, it is not only informative but a lot of fun.</div>
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On the opposite side of Lake Burley Griffin, there is Bludnell’s Cottage, built in 1858. Here, you can experience what life was like in the remote wilderness of the early colony of New South Wales.</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-43739026059451134582012-11-22T03:25:00.003-08:002012-11-22T03:25:57.553-08:00see and visit australia with our family<br />
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Amongst the many places of interest to visit in Australia, being such a vast continent, planning your travel routes and places to stay was a real challenge prior to the digital age.</div>
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Australian Capital Territory ACT</div>
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The capital of Australia has not only national monuments, attractions and museums as places of interest, but also grand national parks to explore that are within easy reach of Canberra. See more about the ACT.</div>
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New South Wales NSW</div>
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New South Wales, with Sydney as its capital, continues to attract millions of visitors every year. The state has deserts in the far west, stunning national parks and charming places along the coast to visit. Stunning beaches line the coast, the snowy mountains in the south offer alpine vistas and winter snow sports. See more about New South Wales.</div>
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Northern Territory NT</div>
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The Northern Territory has the Red Centre of Australia, with Uluru being an iconic desert natural wonder and the mystifying Kata Tjuta, previously called the Olgas. To the north of the state, at the Top End, World Heritage Areas including Kakadu and Litchfield. See NT Map. More NT.</div>
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South Australia SA</div>
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South Australia offers much more than just beautiful opals and great wines. The Adelaide Hills are renowned for their natural beauty, while the Eyre Peninsula has some of the most beautiful accessible coastal scenery of the state. The Murray river meanders to the ocean through splendid Australian scenery, filling beautiful lakes, billabongs and lush wetlands along the way. More about SA - Adelaide Australia.</div>
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Tasmania TAS</div>
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This island state, Tasmania, has huge national parks. More than a third of Tasmania is protected in state reserves, national parks and World Heritage Sites. This natural areas are great attractions for visitors from both Australia and overseas. More about TAS.</div>
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Queensland QLD</div>
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The sunny state, Queensland has one the great natural wonders of the world, the Great Barrier Reef. Yet, there is even more to explore here, islands, sub-tropical cities and towns and sweeping ocean vistas and long sandy beaches.</div>
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Queensland’s tropical climate itself is an attraction, other places to see here include of the Barrier Reef, but also Cairns, which is a popular jump off point for those wanting to explore the reef, as are towns along the coast including Mackay, Rockhampton and Townsville. Further south are Brisbane and the Gold Coast. See QLD.</div>
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Victoria VIC</div>
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Victoria, although the smallest state, has a wealth of places to go and grows great wines and has a great alfresco/café culture to match that of Europe. Its stunning national parks preserve some of the most wonderful pristine areas of the world, while Melbourne is considered to be Australia’s Food Capital. See VIC.</div>
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Western Australia WA</div>
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Growing in popularity with overseas visitors, Western Australia, occupying over two and a half million square kilometres (1 million sq. miles) of land mass has a huge diversity of natural landscapes and wonders. From the tropical sunsets of Broome, to the deep gorges and waterfalls of Karajini, from the great desert regions, to the stunning coastal vistas, backed by the deep forests and fertile fields of the south west. More about WA.</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-776510230980741132012-11-22T03:23:00.001-08:002021-08-18T00:21:50.437-07:00Wine From Sydney <div><br /></div><div><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Bte5B7jC6As/YRy0qfrAPZI/AAAAAAAAECc/vVQvQNP1phg7XncguBjjf4kmWuqpb5bsACNcBGAsYHQ/s1700/winefrom%2Bsydney.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img alt="sydney wine" border="0" data-original-height="580" data-original-width="1700" height="218" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Bte5B7jC6As/YRy0qfrAPZI/AAAAAAAAECc/vVQvQNP1phg7XncguBjjf4kmWuqpb5bsACNcBGAsYHQ/w640-h218/winefrom%2Bsydney.jpg" title="wine from sydney bakoel" width="640" /></a></div><br />
Hunter Valley Wineries<br />
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Hunter Valley Wine Tasting Tours. Only a two hour drive from Sydney is the Hunter Valley - famous as Australia’s oldest wine growing region.<br />
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Late January to late March is the harvest season, but there are things to do the year round and plenty of cellar doors to visit for tastings, even buy a case or two.<br />
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See more about this wine growing region in Australia Hunter Valley tourist information NSW.<br />
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Cessnock<br />
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The Cessnock Information Centre is an excellent place to start, it provides information for the many wineries operating here and can arrange bookings for such diverse activities available in the Hunter as ballooning, tours and horse riding.<br />
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Cessnock Information Centre: Phone (02) 4990 4477.<br />
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Wines<br />
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The many varieties grown here include superb Semillon, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz. Wyndham Estate, Tyrrell’s Vineyards, Rosemount Estate, Peppers Creek, Lindemans, Lake’s Folly and Farrell’s Wines are amongst the many esteemed wineries operating here.<br />
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Most of the cellar door tastings are free, even large groups can be accommodated if you book in advance. There are tours available for the Rothbury Estate, McWilliams Mt Pleasant Estate and Tyrells, showing you some of the finer points of wine making.<br />
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Hunter Wine Regions<br />
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Connected by the Hunter River, there are two distinct regions, the Lower and the Upper Hunter. In the lower Hunter area there is also the registered wine sub-region of Broke Fordwich.<br />
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The Hunter has many other things to offer such as horseriding and ballooning, and of course gourmet restaurants befitting such a renowned wine area.<br />
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Tours<br />
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With the many winery tours available from Sydney, you don’t even have to drive if you don’t want to... so you can savour them for yourself without having to worry about getting home safely.<br />
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There are a number of wineries operating around the periphery of Sydney as well. Tours are available for these and the Hunter from Sydney at Circular Quay and places like Newcastle and Gosford.<br />
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Things to Do<br />
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Check out the Cellars at the many Wineries<br />
Ballooning<br />
Bicyling<br />
Gourmet Picnic from Local Produce<br />
Sampling fine local Cheeses and Chocolates<br />
Horse Riding<br />
See the Weather for Today and Forecasts Hunter Valley Weather.<br />
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Dining Restaurants<br />
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Combined with the many great restaurants that the Hunter region has to offer, allows you to sample the fresh seafood that Australia is famous for. There are many other delicious cuisines made from locally grown produce, from Italian to Australian Noveau to Japanese.<br />
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Some of these restaurants have extensive wine lists spanning many years. At the same time, the Aussie tradition of B.Y.O. (bring your own - wine) <a href="http://www.nyomanmedia.com/" target="_blank"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div>gives you another</a> chance to enjoy your choices from the cellar door sales available from the many Hunter Valley wineries.<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-57844948379953910042012-11-22T03:17:00.003-08:002021-08-18T00:16:14.766-07:00The Blue Mountains from Australia 2012<div><br /></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-VkPN9LBZpgk/YRyzXqU5aZI/AAAAAAAAECU/07q-wRdbnZAfXMDA45KN7CsmkoFFEtvKACNcBGAsYHQ/s850/Blue%2BMountain%2BOf%2BAustralia.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Bakoel Blue Mountain" border="0" data-original-height="400" data-original-width="850" height="302" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-VkPN9LBZpgk/YRyzXqU5aZI/AAAAAAAAECU/07q-wRdbnZAfXMDA45KN7CsmkoFFEtvKACNcBGAsYHQ/w640-h302/Blue%2BMountain%2BOf%2BAustralia.png" title="Australia Blue Mountain" width="640" /></a></div>
<div><br /></div>Explore the history, the antique and art galleries, Australian bird and wildlife and play at golf courses with spectacular views.<br />
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The Blue Mountains offer majestic views and great bushwalk experiences. See the weather for the Blue Mountains, Today and Forecasts Blue Mountains Weather.<br />
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History<br />
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When the colony was first founded in 1788 it took many years before a route across the mountains was discovered by the European settlers. Led by William Cox, their explorer party, after listening to the aboriginal’s advice to stick to the ridges found their way to the rich fertile hinterlands.<br />
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Things to Do - Families<br />
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There are lots of things to do for families such as bush walking and hiking, riding the scenic Zig Zag railway or visiting the World Heritage Plaza at Echo Point with the Skyway cable car and its breathtaking views, as well as the world’s steepest railway. Or pan for gold at Sofala, just west of the mountain range or visit the Hartley Historic Village.<br />
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Megalong Valley<br />
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You can go horseriding at Megalong Valley or visit the Australian Heritage Centre. Visit Mt. Blackheath with spectacular views of the mountains or enjoy a Devonshire Tea at the Megalong Valley Tearoom.<br />
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Hiking (Bushwalking)<br />
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There are many different walks of differing length and difficulty available in the Blue Mountains.<br />
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Try the Jellybean pool at Glenbrook, a 2km easy walk to go for a swim, or see the South Lawson waterfalls with lots of birdlife and great views, a medium walk of about 150 minutes at Lawson.<br />
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There are more than 240,000 hectares of National Park to explore. People do occasionally get lost, so get advice at the one of the visitors centres at the villages and towns in the mountains.<br />
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New South Wales Blue Mountains Tours<br />
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The local aboriginals, the Gundungarra, Wiradjuri and Dharug tribes, had been traversing the mountains for thousands of years. Blue Mountains Walkabout tour offers a chance for you to experience the local aboriginal culture, education and adventure for yourself.<br />
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There are a number of bus tours operating from Sydney offering a wide range of Blue Mountains experiences, including Aboriginal, as well as 4WD adventures.<br />
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Accommodation in the Blue Mountains<br />
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There are many historic inns and pubs, grand hotels and resorts dating from the 1800’s in the Blue Mountains. There are also caravan parks to modern luxury resort accommodation that offers a variety of stays including backpackers and discount hotels for those wishing to stay longer than a day visit.<br />
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You can book hotels and resorts in the Blue Mountains - Blue Mountains Hotel and Travel.<br />
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Restaurants and Dining<br />
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The fresh mountain air and views can make food taste better! There are plenty of eateries and restaurants dotting the mountains to accommodate even the most discerning palate with almost all cuisines represented here.<br />
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<b><i>Places in NSW</i></b><br />
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Here are 3 of the most popular places, yet still beautiful, to visit in New South Wales (NSW) after of course, Sydney. Within these regions are also many hidden treasures to explore off the main beaten tracks.<br />
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Map of New South Wales<br />
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<a href="http://hocacultures.blogspot.com/2012/11/the-blue-mountains-from-australia-2012.html" target="_blank">The Blue Mountains</a><br />
Blue Mountains, NSW - offer Sydney’s most spectacular views and great walks in the bush. Great restaurants, Australian heritage, birdlife and outdoor adventure. More about NSW Blue Mountains. See a Blue Mountains Map.<br />
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<a href="http://hocacultures.blogspot.com/2012/11/wine-from-sydney.html" target="_blank">The Hunter Valley</a><br />
Hunter Valley NSW - The Hunter Valley is renowned as Australia’s oldest wine growing region with cuisine to match. More about Hunter Valley Wine Tours. Also the Hunter Valley NSW Map.<br />
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North Coast NSW<br />
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North Coast NSW - Things to do, places of interest. North Coast NSW Getaway Choice Australian getaway from Sydney. Beautiful beaches, sleepy fishing villages on the East Coast of NSW. More about North Coast NSW Getaway. Also map North Coast NSW Map.<br />
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See more about New South Wales places NSW Tourist Guide.<br />
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Queensland Places of Interest<br />
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Gold Coast Surfers Paradise Queensland<br />
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Gold Coast Queensland<br />
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The Gold Coast Surfers Paradise is very popular for its Queensland beach lifestyle and nightlife the year round. With lots of attractions, activities and things to do.<br />
Capricorn Coast QLD<br />
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Beautiful emerald rainforests, sapphire gemfields and the Queensland Great Barrier Reef. See more Capricorn Queensland.<br />
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Mackay Region QLD<br />
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The beautiful town of Mackay Queensland, surrounded by cane fields, has beautiful beaches and national parks with abundant wildlife, including kangaroos, wallabies and bush turkeys. See more Mackay QLD.<br />
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See more about places of interest in Queensland Queensland Tourist Guide - Queensland Maps.<br />
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Places in Victoria<br />
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Victoria Maps<br />
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Great Ocean Road Victoria<br />
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Great Ocean Road & South West Coast - Winding from Geelong to the South Australia border is the Great Ocean Road - See more on The Great Ocean Road.<br />
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Goldfields Victoria<br />
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Goldfields Victoria - Explore the historic gold towns, take a chance at discovering gold, enjoy great cuisine and see where the armed 1854 Australian Eureka rebellion took place. See about The Victoria Goldfields.<br />
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The High Country<br />
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Victoria High Country - This beautiful Alpine Region of Victoria has dramatic escarpments, stunning views, snow fields in winter and wonderful heritage to explore. See more on The High Country of Victoria.<br />
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Places to See in South Australia<br />
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South Australia Maps<br />
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Barossa Valley South Australia<br />
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The Barossa Valley South Australia offers great wining and dining! Only an hour drive north east from Adelaide one could easily spend a number of days exploring what Barossa Valley has to offer. See more about Barossa Valley SA.<br />
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Limestone Coast<br />
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The Limestone Coast offers much to the visitor, great wines are grown here and the white sandy beaches, coastal scenery of cliffs and sheltered bays are delightful. See more Limestone Coast South Australia.<br />
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Yorke Peninsula<br />
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Where sheer cliffs meet the ocean! But a lot more as the Yorke Peninsula is also a place to explore Australia’s Mining Boom and Bust history, deep sea fishing, and white swimming and surfing sandy beaches tucked away amongst the cliffs. More about Yorke Peninsula South Australia.<br />
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More Australia Places of Interest - See:<br />
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<a href="http://hocacultures.blogspot.com/2012/11/see-and-visit-australia-with-our-family.html" target="_blank">Australia Places of Interest.</a><br />
<a href="http://hocacultures.blogspot.com/2012/11/parliamentary-triangle-in-canberra.html" target="_blank">Australian Capital Territory Places.</a><br />
<a href="http://hocacultures.blogspot.com/2012/11/the-place-of-sydney-to-visit.html" target="_blank">Sydney Australia Places.</a><br />
<a href="http://hocacultures.blogspot.com/2012/11/melbourne-travel.html" target="_blank">Melbourne Australia Best Places to Visit.</a><br />
<a href="http://hocacultures.blogspot.com/2012/11/aboriginal-tours-art-galleries-and.html" target="_blank">NSW Aboriginal Tours, Art Galleries and Cultural Centres.</a>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-68321045537873087132012-10-27T09:43:00.001-07:002012-10-27T09:43:28.722-07:00The Best Attraction Of Brazil<div class="articleBody">
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Here are some of the best Brazilian attractions:<br />
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1) Big cities with beach: Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Recife, Fortaleza, Natal, Florianopolis.<br />
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2) Historical cities: Salvador da Bahia (Bahia), Olinda (Pernambuco),
São Luis (Maranhão), Alcantara (Maranhao), Ouro Preto, Tiradentes,
Congonhas & Diamantina (Minas Gerais), Paraty (Rio de Janeiro).<br />
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3) Best Shopping: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Fortaleza, Ouro Preto.<br />
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4) Churches: São Francisco da Penitência (Rio de Janeiro), Convento
de São Francisco and Nossa Sehora do Rosario dos Pretos(Salvador,
Bahia), Matriz Nossa Senhora do Pilar (Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais). <br />
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5) Museums: Imperial (Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro), Nacional de Belas
Artes (Rio de Janeiro), De Arte de São Paulo - MASP (São Paulo), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer_Museum" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Oscar Niemeyer ">Oscar Niemeyer</a> (Curitiba). <br />
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6) National parks: Iguassu falls (Foz do Iguaçu, Paraná), Chapada
Diamantina (Lençois, Bahia), Lençois Maranhenses (Barreirinhas or Santo
Amaro, Maranhão).<br />
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7) Beaches: Guarda do Embaú (Palhoça, Santa Catarina), Most beaches
of Florianopolis (Santa Catarina), Trindade (Paraty, Rio de Janeiro),
Lopez Mendes (Ilha Grande, Rio de Janeiro), Espelho e Curuipe (Caraiva,
Bahia), Tassimirim (Ilha de Boipeba, Bahia), Quarta Praia (Morro de São
Paulo, Bahia), Gunga (Barra de São Miguel, Alagoas), all the beaches
south of Pernambuco and north of Alagoas ( the best bet); Baia do Sancho
(Fernando de Noronha, Pernambuco), Jericoacoara (Ceará).<br />
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8) Ecology: Pantanal (Mato Grosso do Sul), Ilha do Bananal (Tocantins), Manaus and surrounding areas (Amazonas).<br />
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9) Events: Carnival (Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Recife/Olinda), Festas
Juninas (Campina Grande, Paraíba) including Sao Joao (Cachoeira,
Bahia), Festival de Parintins (Parintins, Amazonas), Festival de Teatro
(Curitiba), Bumba Meu Boi (Sao Luis, Maranhao), Oktoberfest (Blumenau,
Santa Catarina).</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-81743678394537419752012-10-04T23:29:00.003-07:002012-10-04T23:30:19.500-07:00Culture Of BaliThe culture of Bali is unique. People say that the Balinese people have reached self-content. It is not an exaggeration that when a Balinese is asked what heaven is like, he would say, just like Bali, without the worries of mundane life. They want to live in Bali, to be cremated in Bali when they die, and to reincarnate in Bali.
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It does not mean that the Balinese resist changes. Instead, they adapt them to their own system. This goes back far in history. Prior to the arrival of Hinduism in Bali and in other parts of Indonesia, people practised animism. When Hinduism arrives, the practice of Hinduism is adapted to local practices. The brand of Hinduism practised in Bali is much different from that in India. Other aspects of life flow this way.
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Traditional paintings, faithfully depicting religious and mythological symbolisms, met with Western and modern paintings, giving birth to contemporary paintings, free in its creative topics yet strongly and distinctively Balinese. Its dance, its music, and its wayang theaters , while have been continually enriched by contemporary and external artistry, are still laden with religious connotations, performed mostly to appease and to please the gods and the goddesses. Wood and stone carvings, gold and silver crafts parallel the development of paintings, gracefully evolving with external forces to enhance their characters. The batik of Bali owes its origin to Java, and inspired the development of ikat and double ikat.
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<b><span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Painting Of Bali
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Paintings of Bali have experienced remarkable evolution. Traditionally another means of expressing religious and mythological ideas, paintings of Bali have been subjected to a number of influences, including deep interaction with Western painters who came and lived in Bali. As with any other artistic expression found in the island, these influences have been uniquely adapted into Bali's personality, creating new nuances and styles of paintings that are distinctly Balinese. Instead of religious or mythical characters of wayang, contemporary paintings present nature, daily lives of Balinese, or even tourists. The shades of coal gray that dominate traditional paintings are now accompanied by vibrant play of color capturing Jalak Bali or Gunung Agung in the morning sun.
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The Raja of Ubud was known for his fondness of arts and paintings, and his openness to foreigners. Thus Ubud became the center of arts, welcoming into its heart renowned artists such as Bonnet, Spies, Blanco, Snel, et., many of whom came and never could leave Bali. Today's Ubud is only slightly different. You should not be surprised to run into a foreign writer who has spent months living in a homestay facing a rice field terrace while writing his next book. Fabulous museums of paintings such as the Puri Museum Lukisan, the Neka Museum, and the Rudana Museum have in their permanent collections some of the best paintings ever produced by Balinese or foreigners who found their physical and artistic home in Bali.
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: large;"><b>People Of Bali
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The Balinese, anthropologists suggest, are an amalgamation of a number of people. The Chinese coming from the North, the Indian and the Arabs from way West, and other groups coming directly to Bali or by way of Java. Centuries past, and they become what is now known as native Balinese. They are blessed with well-developed bodies, golden-bronze skin, long, glossy black hair, and charm and mystical smiles, happily living in a rich and complete yet dynamic culture.
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There are pockets of villages in which fraternization with outsiders is completely restricted, resulting in a people and a culture that the Balinese called Bali Aga (Old Bali), which may curiously be the tunnel that allows us to periscope into the culture of Bali in the past centuries.
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People, Religion, and Temples
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A person in Bali cannot exist in solitude. Balinese society is very community oriented. The first invitation to attend the next village meeting is delivered to you practically as a wedding present. If ignored, it will result in a warning; if three invitations are ignored, then the village may take actions against you. Since land is usually owned by the community, the village may revoke your privilege to till the land. Much of the rituals require massive effort, which usually the village shoulder in cooperatively. You will have to shoulder it yourself, should you decide to be an outcast. Along with other families in the village, you participate in meetings. You may play an instrument in the orchestra, or dance in the ceremonies. The women prepare the offerings, for their little shrines or for the village's offering to the Mother Temple of Besakih. If a child in a family is having his tooth filed, the rest of the village's women will help cook and prepare, and the men help erect a stage and decorate the house. In short, life in Bali is never alone.
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You can observe this even in little children. As their parents go to plant rice, the children - all seem to be in their best behavior - play with their age group. The older ones will care for the younger ones. Fights rarely occur, and loud screams or cries are even scarcer. As if they have been taught to be at harmony with their surroundings.
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The Balinese also has a built in population control mechanism through their naming structure. In Bali, all first child is named Wayan, second child is Made, the third child is Nyoman, and the fourth, or the last, is Ketut. If you have more than four? Well, the Balinese seem to have understood modulo arithmetic, so it's back to Wayan, Made, Nyoman, and Ketut, repeat. But implicitly, the culture discourages having more than four children.
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Though originating from India, the brand of Hinduism known and practiced in Bali differs significantly from the one found in India. Instead of mysticism or philosophy, the emphasis of Bali's Hinduism is more in rituals and dramatic features, allowing the religion and its practice to be incorporated into daily life of Balinese peasants. These rituals and dramatic features have been intricately woven into the lives of Balinese to the extent that one cannot separate the religious life of Bali from its daily life. In fact, one can say every little action of a Balinese has some religious connotation; stone and wood carvings, cremation ceremony, trance dances, vibrant music - all are intended to please the gods and the goddesses. These rituals most often take place in a temple, the most important structure in the Balinese culture.
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Food
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Another aspect of religious life in Bali is the belief that the gods and the goddesses appreciate the mundane pleasures as much as the mere mortals. Feasts and festivals color everyday life as they function to please the people as much as they please the gods. Dances, music, and performances will of course be present. And endowed with such fertile and arable land, the Balinese also practice their creativity with the food and offerings presented in these feasts (which, one can rightfully expect, transcend into similar kinds of food and fruits consumed in normal daily living...)
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Textil Of Bali
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The Batik of Bali provides another venue of showing the artistic excellence of the Balinese people. Their beautiful designs, inspired by religious mythologies to everyday encounters, spread throughout the world. Originally stimulated by Javanese motifs, dominated by wayang and other mythological characters, contemporary batik artists have also experienced artistic development that parallels that of paintings. Modern batik artists express themselves through various subjects, from objects of nature such as birds or fish to daily activities such as cremation (ngaben) procession or tourist attractions as well as religious and mythological stories, accompanied by modern interpretation.
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The Ikat and Double Ikat are two amazing techniques that the Balinese have perfected. A piece of Ikat cloth is woven in such a way that the ink is 'tied' (which is what 'ikat' literally translates to) in one of the two threads. A Double Ikat recursively repeats this technique; both threads contain ink. The ink will bleed to its neihboring area, and the result is a piece of cloth with distinctive, subtle patterns.
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The village of Tenganan is well known for its superb double ikat work. A good piece of double ikat may take months to complete, and it usually belongs to the family heirloom. Certain patterns, such as the black and white, checkered, double ikat are considered to have protective powers against the evil spirits. Thus, they are used a lot to cover or to dress statues that guard the entrance to a temple or sacred masks like Barong.
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A piece of ikat shirt or a batik wrap-around, each can be had for as little as a few dollars, are must have. Local garment shops will gladly supply you with these or any other kinds of Balinese garments that might interest you.
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-83467704438261564012012-09-30T21:38:00.001-07:002012-09-30T21:38:25.652-07:00Today's News<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<strong><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;">SPECIAL DIVE PROMOTION FOR 2 PERSONS.</span></strong><span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"></span><br />
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INTRODUCTION DIVE: USD 110 for 2 persons</div>
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CMAS P1 (4 days) OPEN WATER DIVER: USD 700 for 2 persons</div>
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DIVE PACKAGES FROM 10 DIVE ONWARDS: when booked in 2 persons there will be further 2 free dives or 2 days of free dive rental equipment.</div>
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Dive Courses</span></h1>
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Our excessive course program includes both beginners courses and courses for more experienced divers how want further education.</div>
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<b>Bubblemaker</b><br />
Here can kids from 8 years try breathing under water with scuba equipment in direct supervision of a instructor. All the instructions take part in the shallow part of the swimming pool. The kids learn to feel comfortable and safe under water.<br />
<em>Price: USD 60,00</em></div>
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<b>Introduction dive</b><br />
For those with no dive certificate who wish to try diving in supervision of a instructor. First we practice a few skills in confined water and then we make a dive in the ocean to maximum 12 meters depth.<br />
<em>Price: USD 70,00</em></div>
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<b>Scuba skills refresher</b><br />
For divers who have not been diving in the last 1-2 years, we offer a short refresher in our pool.<br />
<em>Price: USD 50,00</em></div>
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<b>CMAS P1 (4 days) OPEN WATER DIVER</b><br />
This program results in a certificate which gives you license to dive all around the world. The course is composed of 5 academic modules , 5 pool modules and 4 oceans dives where you will learn the basics for safe diving.<br />
<em>Price: USD 400,00</em></div>
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<b>CMAS P2 (2–3 days) ADVANCED OWD</b><br />
Advanced program where you will learn how to navigate under water and make deep dives, required, then choose 3 dives by night dive, drift dive, wreck dive, boat dive, UW photo, search & recovery to name a few. In this program is included 5 dives but no academic modules. NB! Previous knowledge required: Open Water Diver certificate or equal.<br />
<em>Price: USD 300,00</em></div>
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<strong>Divemaster "P3"</strong><br />
<em>Price: After inquiry</em></div>
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Diving in Karimunjawa</span></h1>
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Kura Kura has pursued education and arranged dive excursions in Karimunjawa since 1999. Our instructors and divemasters are experienced divers which will make you feel safe and well taken care off during our courses and excursions.</div>
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We have discovered several dive sites that are in good to excellent condition. On the upside, one should perhaps mention the overall quality of the diving, the variety between fringing reefs, atolls and the many wrecks, the good variety of species, some of them rare, such as for example the Crocodile fish and Leafy Scorpion fish. In clear water with a pleasant temperature we garantee you an experience beyond the ordinary.</div>
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<b>Taka Menyawakan</b><br />
An exciting dive site, with spectacular coral cover which exceeds more than 250 different species, plentiful Bat fish and the wrecks of two ships! One of the wrecks is a Pelni ferry which sunk in the 50s. You will also see schooling Barracudas, Skipjack Tuna, Hawksbill turtles, Lobsters and Giant clams. Usually a strong current sweeps this reef, giving you an exciting ride all the way around it.</div>
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<b>Gosong Cemara</b><br />
Just a short boat ride and off you go on one of the best reefs in the area, the shallower parts on this dive has a great veraity of soft and hard coral, deeper parts presents huge colourful seafans.</div>
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<b>The Wreck of Biblis</b><br />
One of the the few wrecks in the world, which still has it huge bronze propeller intact. This wreck has been on the ocean floor for many years, so the coral life is amazing. Several big groupers are nearly always spotted on this wreck. Possibility to penetrate for trained wreck divers.</div>
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<b>Pioneer Reef</b><br />
The house reef located just steps from our diveshop offers a great variety of fish such as, barracudas, lionfish, crocodile fish, groupers, bambu sharks, cuttle fish, lobsters and much much more. This is also a perfect spot for night dives</div>
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<b>Ezdir Reef</b><br />
This dive site is named after one of our frequent diver guests. It was discovered mid/late 2000. The quality and variety of corals are extremely good, so good that one group of divers did three dives on this site in one day, and it was the first site they wanted to visit when they returned to the resort again.</div>
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<b>Hawksbill Point</b><br />
Conveniently located on our own island of Menyawakan, this spot gives you the opportunity to come face to face with Hawksbill turtles and quite often Octopus too. Usually Crocodile fishes and Scorpion fishes are seen on your smooth drift back to the Resorts jetty.</div>
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<b>The Wreck of Indonur</b><br />
Dutch steam ship. Went down in 1963. A huge warehouse was on fire on the beach, it was mistaken for the lights of Semarang, and the captain went full speed up on the reef..... Come and see 6cm thick steel plates, torn apart like paper. Large riveted steam boilers. Great fish and coral life on the wreck is growing bigger and bigger each year. Excellent night dives on this wreck when you will have a chance to see Arrow crabs, Soft coral crabs and numerous other macro critters.</div>
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<b>Torpedo Reef</b><br />
One of our most remote dive sites, but well worth the boat trip since it is one of the high lights of the archipelago. The exceptionally healthy Torpedo Reef has remnants of torpedoes and grenades scattered across the ocean floor. Beside the torpedoes and the grenades, the reef has a good variety of pelagics and the blooming soft corals are nothing less than fantastic!</div>
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Rates</h1>
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<strong>Day trips</strong><br />
2 guided boat dives - USD 90,00<br />
Dives from shore - USD 35,00/dive</div>
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<strong>Dive package</strong><br />
10 dives USD 405.00<br />
15 dives USD 585.00<br />
20 dives USD 765.00</div>
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<b>Equipment rental</b><br />
Full set x 1 day - USD 25,00<br />
Full set x 3 days - USD 55,00<br />
Full set x 5 days - USD 90,00<br />
Full set x 7 days - USD 110,00</div>
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BCD USD 7,00, Regulator and gauges USD 7,00, Mask, Snorkel, Fins, Booties USD 5,00, Wetsuit USD 5,00, Dive lamp USD 10,00, Dive computer USD 10,00</div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-57201451818574376592012-09-29T23:41:00.000-07:002012-09-29T23:41:02.553-07:00Cultures Of Slovenia<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Language in Slovenia<br />
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Slovene or Slovenian is an Indo-European language that belongs to the family of South Slavic languages. It is spoken by approximately 2 million speakers worldwide, naturally the majority of whom live in Slovenia. Slovene is one of the few languages to have preserved the dual grammatical number from Proto-Indo-European. Also, Slovene and Slovak are the two modern Slavic languages whose names for themselves literally mean "Slavic". Slovene is one of the official languages of the European Union.
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Although the country is relatively small, there are over 32 different dialects spoken, which can be grouped into 7 larger dialect segments. The diversity in language is due to the influences of neighbouring countries as well as the mountainous nature of the country, which has led to isolated language development.
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Slovenian People, Society and Culture
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The Role of Religion<br />
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Over half the population is Roman Catholic, although there are approximately 38 religious groups or sects officially registered within Slovenia. The Office for Religious Communities maintains a list of active religious communities. There are a large number of Evangelical Lutherans residing near the Hungarian border. Those who call themselves Catholic are very heterogeneous, with very few adhering to all the precepts of the church. In fact, the majority are quite selective in what aspects they follow and often combine their religious beliefs with secular beliefs.
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Despite the secularism of many people, many public holidays are also religious in nature.
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The Family
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The family is at the centre of the social structure. However, over time this is changing. Only a decade ago, one could find several generations living together; nowadays not only are young people moving away but families are splitting due to a move to urban centres. Nonetheless, the family itself remains strong.
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Slovenians sense of “home” is also very strong. As a rule, when they are not working, they embark on home based activities such as gardening projects (a visitor will notice that having flowers around the house is something of an art form in cities) or renovation. They see their home and its surroundings as an extension of themselves. People take care to sweep their paths and ensure that the streets remain free of litter and parks are well-maintained.
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A Polycentric Culture
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Slovenia has a polycentric culture. This means people will go out of their way to change their natural behaviour to mirror that of the person with whom they are interacting. So for example, Slovenians are naturally indirect communicators but can moderate their behaviour when dealing with people who come from cultures where more direct communication is the norm.
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This ease of adaptation makes Slovenes easy to work with, although it also makes it somewhat difficult to know exactly what to expect when dealing with people since some may be more adept at moderating their behaviour than others.
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Communication Style
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Slovenians are egalitarian, yet interestingly their natural communication style tends to be indirect. However, at the same time their polycentricity means they are willing to adapt their communication style to the person with whom they are conversing.
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They prefer to communicate indirectly with people whom they do not know well. This can be demonstrated by offering vague, roundabout, or non-committed explanations rather than offer a negative response. They tend to prefer non-confrontational business dealings when possible. This means that even when giving a straightforward response, they will generally proceed cautiously rather than hurt another person’s feelings.
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Business decisions are often based on personal sentiments about the other person. Therefore, it is a good idea to spend time in relationship building.
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Slovenians admire modesty and humility in business associates. They dislike people who boast about their accomplishments and achievements.
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Slovenians are naturally soft-spoken and do not raise their voices when conversing. They are also polite, courteous, and respectful of others. They do not interrupt a speaker, preferring to wait for their turn to enter the conversation. They are very tolerant of differences and view it as rude behaviour to publicly criticize or complain about people.
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Although Slovenians have a good sense of humour, they do not always understand self-deprecating humour. Be cautious when teasing others, as such behaviour may be interpreted as putting them down.
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Business Meetings
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Meetings typically start after a brief period of social chit chat. Make sure this is not rushed as it is all part of the relationship building process. Although not a relationship-driven culture in the classic sense, Slovenes prefer to do business with those they know and trust. When meeting with a company for the first time, this period of social interchange may be somewhat extended so that your Slovene colleagues get the opportunity to learn something about you as a person and make judgments about your character.
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Expect your Slovene business colleagues to be somewhat reserved and formal initially. It may take several meetings to establish a sense of rapport and relaxed attitude between people. The Slovene business culture is a mix of German efficiency and Italian gusto for life; however, this second attribute is not always readily apparent. It takes time for Slovenes to shed their reserve, although they generally do, especially after a few glasses of wine.
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Business decision-making processes are often based on hierarchy, and many decisions are still reached at the highest echelons of the company. Final decisions tend to be translated into comprehensive action plans that are followed explicitly.
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When meeting with peers or in teams, Slovenes’ egalitarianism is apparent. The hierarchy is relatively flat. Although the team leader is considered to be the expert, all members are deemed to have something to contribute. With a culture based on tolerance, disagreements are based on different interpretation of information. Actual decisions may be based more on personal viewpoints than concrete facts.
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-45475776545642864682012-08-18T19:20:00.000-07:002012-08-18T19:20:24.975-07:00Culture Of Iceland<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Identification. Scandinavian sailors discovered Iceland in the mid-ninth century, and the first settler recognized in the literary-historical tradition, Ingólfur Arnason, arrived in 874. The book of settlements ( Landnámabók ), which contains information on four hundred settlers, was compiled in the twelfth century. The story set down there and repeated to this day is that a Norse Viking named Flóki sailed to Iceland, but spent so much energy hunting and fishing that he did not lay up hay for his livestock, which died in the winter, and had to return. He then gave the island its unpromising name.<br />
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Among the settlers and the slaves the Scandinavians brought were people of Irish as well as Norse descent; Icelanders still debate the relative weight of the Norse and Irish contributions to their culture and biology. Some date a distinctive sense of "Icelandicness" to the writing of the First Grammatical Treatise in the twelfth century. The first document was a recording of laws in 1117. Many copies and versions of legal books were produced. Compilations of law were called Grágas ("gray goose" or "wild goose").
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In 930, a General Assembly was established, and in 1000, Iceland became Christian by a decision of the General Assembly. In 1262–1264, Iceland was incorporated into Norway; in 1380, when Norway came under Danish rule, Iceland went along; and on 17 June 1944, Iceland became an independent republic, though it had gained sovereignty in 1918 and had been largely autonomous since 1904.
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The sense of Iceland as a separate state with a separate identity dates from the nineteenth-century nationalist movement. According to the ideology of that movement, all Icelanders share a common heritage and identity, though some argue that economic stratification has resulted in divergent identities and language usage.
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-4eBzwJzFJjE/UDBMz28MepI/AAAAAAAABHg/tZcM-PKMinI/s1600/iceland2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-4eBzwJzFJjE/UDBMz28MepI/AAAAAAAABHg/tZcM-PKMinI/s1600/iceland2.jpg" /></a>Location and Geography. Iceland is an island in the north Atlantic Ocean between Greenland and Norway just south of the Arctic Circle. It covers 63,860 square miles (103,000 square kilometers), of which about 620 are cultivated, 12,400 are used for grazing, 7,500 are covered by glaciers, 1,900 are covered by lakes, and 41,500 are covered by lava, sands, and other wastelands. The Gulf Stream moderates the climate. The capital is Reykjavík.
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Demography. In 1993, the population was 264,922. In 1703, when the first census was done, the population was 50,358. In 1992, there were 63,540 families that averaged three members. In 1993, the population of the capital area was 154,268.
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Linguistic Affiliation. Icelandic is a Germanic language related to Norwegian. Medieval Icelandic, the language of the historical-literary tradition, sometimes is called Old Norse. Icelandic has been said to be virtually unaltered since medieval times, although many Icelanders disagree. There are no family names. Everyone has one or two names and is referred to as the son or daughter of his or her father. Thus, everyone has a patronymic, or father's name. Directories are organized alphabetically by first name. There is some debate about the uniformity of the language. Purists of the nationalist-oriented independence tradition insist that there is no variation in Icelandic, but linguistic studies suggest variation by class. While all the people speak Icelandic, most also speak Danish and English.
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Symbolism. The international airport is named Leif Erikson Airport after the first voyager to North America, and a statue of Erikson stands in front of the National Cathedral. A heroic statue of the first
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Iceland
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settler is in the downtown area of the capital. The nationalist-oriented ideology stresses identification with medieval culture and times while downplaying slavery and later exploitative relations of the aristocracy and commoners. This romantic view of the saga tradition informs nationalist symbolism and nationalist-influenced folklore. There is a whole genre of romantic landscape poetry depicting the beauty of the island. Some of it goes back to the saga tradition, quoting Gunnar, a hero of Njal's saga, who refused to depart after being outlawed because as he looked over his shoulder when his horse stumbled, the fields were so beautiful that he could not bear to leave. More recently, rhetoric about whaling has achieved symbolic proportions as some have viewed attempts to curtail the national tradition of whale hunting as an infringement on their independence. Independence Day on 17 June is celebrated in Reykjavík. Neighborhood bands march into the downtown area playing songs, and many people drink alcoholic beverages. The major symbols of Icelandicness are the language and geography, centered on the beauty of the landscape. Many people know the names of the farms of their ancestors and can name fjords and hills, and the map in the civic center in Reykjavík has no place names because it is assumed that people know them. The folkloristic tradition contains many stories of trolls, among them the ones that come from the wastelands to eat children at Christmas and their twelve sons who play pranks on people. Various features of landscape are associated with stories recorded in the official folklore.
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History and Ethnic Relations
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Emergence of the Nation. Between 1602 and 1787, Denmark imposed a trade monopoly that
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Swimmers bathe in the Blue Lagoon thermal baths in Iceland.
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restricted imports and kept fishing under its control. A farming elite developed a system of self-contained farms and opposed the development of fishing, which would threaten the supply of cheap labor if relied on. After independence, fishing finally developed. The trade monopoly organized Iceland as a tributary state for mercantile purposes and created a class of farmers with entrenched interests and power to defend them against the fisheries. The trade monopoly created the autonomous Icelandic farm as the primary social, economic, and political unit. When the tributary system became a hindrance to organizing for capitalism, the elite engineered backwardness to serve its interests. This backwardness was not a local dynamic and was not culturally determined but served a large international Danish system. When Denmark's absolute monarchy was replaced by a nation-state, this provided a context for Icelandic independence. Although farmers tried to perpetuate their hold over the economy, industrial fishing became the backbone of the national economy. The "independence struggle" started in the mid-nineteenth century. Nationalist ideology presents the movement as an autonomous great awakening. In the service of the independence movement, the elite developed distinctive images of what it meant to be Icelandic, aided by historians and legalists, folklorists, and linguists. These images described an ideal lifestyle of an elite. Danes thought Icelandic culture embodied the most noble elements in the Norse experience and looked to Iceland for inspiration. Thus, Icelandic leaders could argue that the nation's future should match the glories of its past. Icelandic students in Denmark began to import ideas of nationalism and romanticism. The Icelandic elite followed the Danes in identifying with a romantic image of a glorious Icelandic past. As the Danes began to modernize and develop, they set the conditions for Icelandic independence. Finally it was conditions beyond Danish control—when Denmark was occupied by Germany in World War II, followed by the occupation of Iceland by British and then American troops— that pushed Iceland into independence. Given independence and population growth, along with new sources of outside capital, the government focused on the development of industrial fishing and the infrastructure to support it.
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National Identity. The working class identified with national political movements and parties and thus helped ratify the elite's vision of Iceland. The ideology developed by members of the farming elite was one of the individual, the holiness and purity of the countryside, and the moral primacy of the farm and farmers. The most significant individuals were the farmers. This ideology was perpetuated in academic writings, schools, and law. Foreign scholars and anthropologists, along with local folklorists, created a bureaucratic folklorism that considered the intellectual superior to the rural people and the rural people as the most superior of all exotics. Such constructs could not be perpetuated as most people abandoned the countryside in favor of fishing villages and wage work or salaried positions in Reykjavík. Icelanders generalized and democratized the concept of the elite and combined it with competitive consumerism. This led to a new cultural context that weakened the ideology of the farmer elite. The main ideological task of the independence movement was to develop a paradigm that would prove that the nationalistic power struggle would change the lives of ordinary people. The past and the countryside were emphasized as pure, while working people in the cities were considered trash. The folklore movement displaced discussions of competition for power to earlier times and reduced diversity to uniformity in service of the state. As the population grew and the economy turned more toward fishing in the coastal towns and villages, farmers lost their economic place. The main goal of the nationalist ideology that the elite promulgated was to conserve the old order. The glory of the sagas was held up as a model, and certain celebrations were revived to emphasize the connection. However, today most Icelanders live in the area of the capital, and their culture is international.
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Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space
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In 1991, there were 4,754 farms. More than half the people (154,268) live in the Reykjavík area. The next largest town is Akurery, with a population of 14,799. Keflavík, where the NATO base and the international airport are, has a population of 7,581. The Westman Islands are home to 4,883 people. The realities of daily life for most people are urban and industrial or bureaucratic. Until recently, social life was centered on households and there was little public life in restaurants, cafés, or bars. There is a thriving consumer economy. People are guaranteed the right to work, health care, housing, retirement, and education. Thus, there is no particular need to save. People therefore purchase homes, country houses, cars, and consumer goods to stock them. Private consumption in 1993 reached $10,600 per capita.
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Food and Economy
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Food in Daily Life. The writer Halldor Laxness once observed that "life is salt fish." During some of the events inspired by the romantic folkloric revival, people consume brennivín, an alcoholic beverage called "black death," along with fermented shark meat and smoked lamb, which is served at festive occasions. Icelanders are famous for the amount of coffee they drink and the amount of sugar they consume.
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Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. For homecomings and family gatherings, there is usually a sumptuous spread of cakes and pastries, including crullers and thin pancakes rolled around whipped cream.
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Basic Economy. The major occupations in 1991 were agriculture, fishing, and fish processing. The main industries were building, commerce, transportation and communications, finance and insurance, and the public sector. Fish and fish products are the major export item. While dairy products and meat are locally produced, grain products are imported. Some vegetables are produced in greenhouses, and some potatoes are locally produced. Other food is imported, along with many consumer goods. In 1993, consumer goods accounted for 37.2 percent of imports, intermediate goods 28 percent, fuels 8 percent, and investment goods 25.8 percent.
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Social Stratification
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Classes and Castes. There is a lack of extreme stratification in a country that values egalitarian relationships. Working-class people are likely to indicate their class status by language use, incorporating into their speech what purists call "language diseases."
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Political Life
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Government. Iceland has a multiparty parliamentary system, and there is a written constitution. Presidents are elected for four-year terms by direct popular vote but serve a parliamentary function and do not head a separate executive branch. The parliament is called Althingi after the medieval general assembly. It has sixty three members elected by popular vote for four-year terms. Each party puts forward a list of candidates, and people vote for parties, not candidates. The seats in the parliament are then distributed to parties according to the placement of people in their lists. Thus, elections
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Flowers adorn a public square. Icelanders take extreme care in the upkeep of public areas.
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have more to do with policies and positions on issues than with personalities.
Leadership and Political Officials. After elections, the president asks one party, usually the one with the largest number of votes, to form a government of cabinet officers. There has never been a majority in the parliament, and so the governments are coalitions. The real political competition starts after elections, when those elected to the parliament jockey for positions in the new government. If the first party cannot form a coalition, the president will ask another one until a coalition government is formed. Cabinet ministers can sit in the parliament but may not vote unless they have been elected as members. This cabinet stays in power until another government is formed or until there are new elections. The president and the Althingi share legislative power because the president must approve all the legislation the parliament passes. In practice, this is largely a ritual act, and even a delay in signing legislation is cause for public comment. Constitutionally, the president holds executive power, but the cabinet ministers, who are responsible to the Althingi , exercise the power of their various offices. The parliament controls national finances, taxation, and financial allocations and appoints members to committees and executive bodies. There is an autonomous judicial branch. The voting age is 18, and about 87.4 percent of the people vote. The major parties include the Independence Party, Progressive Party, People's Alliance, Social Democrats, Women's Party, and Citizens/ Liberal Party. Each party controls a newspaper to spread and propagate its views. The mode of interaction with political officials is informal.
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Social Problems and Control. There are few social problems, and crime is minimal. There is some domestic abuse and alcoholism. The unemployment rate is very low. Police routinely stop drivers to check for drunkenness, and violators have to serve jail time, often after waiting for a space in the jail to become available. There are no military forces.
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Social Welfare and Change Programs
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Since independence, there has been a high standard of living. From 1901 to 1960, real national income rose tenfold, with an annual average growth rate over 4 percent. This was the period in which the national economy was transformed from a rural economy based on independent farms to a capitalist fishing economy with attendant urbanization.
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Gender Roles and Statuses
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The Relative Status of Women and Men. There is more gender equality than there is in many other countries. The open nature of the political system allows interested women to organize as a political party to pursue their interests in the parliament. There are women clergy. Fishing is largely in the hands of men, while women are more prominent in fish processing.
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Marriage, Family, and Kinship
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Marriage. There is a relative lack of formal marriage, and out-of-wedlock births (13 to 36 percent) have never been stigmatized. Women frequently have a child before they marry. Many people are related to numerous half siblings from their parents' other children by other mates.
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Domestic Unit. The domestic unit is the household, and larger kin groups come together for annual reunions. Friendship and other connections are very important, and many people who are referred to by kin terms are not genealogically related.
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Socialization
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Infant Care. Infants are isolated in carriages and cribs, not continuously held. Public health nurses check on newborns to be sure they are on the growth curves and check for signs of neglect, abuse, or disease. Since both men and women usually work, it is common for children to be kept in day care centers from an early age.
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Child Rearing and Education. Children are centers of attention, and classes are given on child rearing and parenting. Thus, even teenagers are familiar with approved methods of child rearing. Education is respected and considered a basic right. University education is available to all who want it and can afford minimal registration fees. Education is compulsory between ages 7 and 16 but may be continued in middle schools or high schools, many of which are boarding schools.
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Higher Education. A theological seminary was founded in 1847, followed by a medical school in 1876 and a law school in 1908; these three schools were merged in 1911 to form the University of Iceland. A faculty of philosophy was added to deal with matters of ideology (philology, history, and literature). Later, faculties of engineering and social sciences were added.
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Etiquette
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Social interaction is egalitarian. Public comportment is quiet and reserved.
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Religion
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Religious Beliefs. The state church is the Evangelical Lutheran Church, of which 92.2 percent of the population are nominal if not practicing members. Other Lutherans constitute 3.1 percent of the population, Catholics 0.9 percent, and others 3.8 percent. There is a Catholic church and churches of other groups in Reykjavík. There are many Lutheran churches, and their clergy substitute for social service agencies. Other religions include Seventh-Day Adventists, Pentecostals, Jehovah's Witnesses, Bahai, and followers of the Asa Faith Society, which looks to the gods represented in the saga tradition. Less than 2 percent of the population in 1993 was not affiliated with a religious denomination.
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Icelandic fishermen provide the key ingredient for one of the country's main exports, fish and fish products.is an important ritual for adolescents, but many who are confirmed are not active.
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Medicine and Health Care
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Universal medical care is provided as a right. There is a modern medical system.
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Secular Celebrations
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Most holidays are associated with the Christian religious calendar. Others include the first day of summer on a Thursday from 19 to 25 April, Labor Day on 1 May, National Day on 17 June, and Commerce Day on the first Monday of August. These holidays are observed by having a day off from work and possibly traveling to the family summer house for a brief vacation.
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The Arts and Humanities
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Support for the Arts. There is an art museum in Reykjavík, and several artists have achieved the status of "state artists" with government-funded studios, which become public museums after their deaths. There is a theater community in Reykjavík.
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Literature has a long history.
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The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
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The University of Iceland is the center for scientific research. There is much work on geothermal energy sources. The National Science Foundation funds research, and Iceland belongs to international federations for the support of physical and social science research. There is a faculty of engineering and a faculty of social science at the university.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-72196234053383469812012-07-15T21:20:00.001-07:002012-07-15T21:20:15.046-07:00Culture Of Bermuda<div style="text-align: justify;">
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Location and Geography. In a setting of turquoise waters, pink beaches and lush foliage on low hills, this small, subtropical coral island in the North Atlantic sits atop a long-extinct volcanic chain 570 miles (917 kilometers) southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, the nearest land. Only twenty-one square miles in area (fifty-five square kilometers), the island is comprised of many small islets around the Main Island and seven others that are bridged together. Bermuda is shaped like a fish-hook, the eye being Saint George's Harbour at the northeast end, and the loop of the hook forming the Great Sound at the other, leading into Hamilton Harbour. Often mistakenly associated with the Caribbean, it is in fact nearer to Nova Scotia. Protected from extremes of weather by the Gulf Stream, temperatures range between 65 degrees Fahrenheit (18 degrees Celsius) in winter and 85 degrees Fahrenheit (29 degrees Celsius) in summer. There are nine parishes named after several of the primary English 'adventurers,' or investors in the 1607 Virginia colony who separately invested in the Somer Isles company.
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Demography. The population of Bermuda is 62,997 (2000 estimate). Blacks have been in the majority since some point in the late eighteenth century, and now comprise between 60 and 70 percent of Bermudians. The majority of the remaining ethnic components are northern European, mainly British; they are followed by Portuguese, who are mainly of Azorean origin, and the descendants of a number of Native American tribes. While some 75 percent of Bermudians were born on the Island, many or most of those born overseas have eventually become Bermudian by marriage. Fears of permanent overpopulation and of changes in the ethnic structure have made it nearly impossible to otherwise obtain Bermuda Status (as citizenship is called).
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Nearly all the slaves were brought to Bermuda from the West Indies or as slaves on ships captured by Bermuda privateers. Few arrived directly from Africa. The northern European minority descend from the original English colonists and subsequent arrivals from all over Britain including indentured laborers. Some U.S. military personnel and some Scandinavians also settled here. A few Portuguese families arrived first in the 1840s from Madeira. Portuguese immigrants increasingly arrived in subsequent years to work in the growing agricultural industry.
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Linguistic Affiliation. The language is a blend of British, North American, and various West Indian versions of the English language. Azorean Portuguese is still spoken and preserved in some Portuguese homes. In the Bermudian accent, sometimes V s and W s are transposed; a usage that derives from the Elizabethan English of the seventeenth century settlers.
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Symbolism. The Bermudian flag is the British Red Ensign 'defaced' with the heraldic Bermuda Coat of Arms. The Union Flag occupies the upper, hoist quarter of an otherwise red flag and the Arms are within the red field. They consist of a white and green shield in which a heraldic red lion grasps a scroll displaying the sinking of Somers' ship Sea Venture.
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History and Ethnic Relations
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Emergence of the Nation. Bermuda was first settled in 1609, when the Sea Venture, a British flagship carrying settlers and provisions to Jamestown, Virginia, wrecked on the islands' shores. The senior
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officer of the fleet, George Somers, and his shipwrecked sailors built new vessels and continued on to Virginia, but, enchanted by the beauty and abundant natural resources, they made plans to settle the islands. Colonization began in July 1612, when sixty British settlers, led by Richard Moore, disembarked. Moore became the first governor. In 1616, the king issued a charter to form the Somers Isles Company, a commercial enterprise.
By 1620, the parliamentary Sessions House began to hold meetings of the colonial legislature. A system of land ownership developed as the territory was divided into parishes named after major stockholders in the Virginia Company. The Virginia Company ruled Bermuda much like a fiefdom and the colonists soon grew tired of the burdensome restrictions placed upon them. In 1684, Bermudian leaders sued to have the charter rescinded, and thereafter Bermuda was ruled as an English colony in a similar fashion to its American counterparts.
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Slaves were first brought to the islands in the early seventeenth century. Most served as laborers and domestic workers rather than plantation workers. They were often treated brutally, and several slave revolts in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries resulted in even harsher treatment.
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The Bermudians launched into shipping, a highly successful industry until the advent of steam in the early nineteenth century. Taking advantage of the prolific Bermuda Cedar, they set to work to design and build the Bermuda sloops and schooners that became internationally famous. These ships were especially effective when sailing upwind or to windward. This was critical to their commercial value since they could deliver goods more quickly than their competitors. Crewed by Bermudians of all shades and degrees of servitude, they traded with ports all over the Atlantic coast of North America and the Caribbean. In wartime, armed with Letters of Marque or Warrants from the crown, they captured, depending on the war, French, Spanish, Dutch, and even American ships, bringing them to the Admiralty Prize Court in Bermuda for sale and prize money. Bermuda has been well known for privateering throughout its history.
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Bermuda rose to prominence in the seventeenth century as a ship building and manning center from which ships sailed to carry on trade between the colonies and islands of North America and the Caribbean. It became a post for slave trading, as well as for West Indian rum, salt, and oranges. Whaling also added to the colony's income.
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In 1815 the capital was moved from Saint George's to the increasingly busy port of Hamilton in the center of the island. As shipping declined, a new industry was needed to support the workforce, and Bermudians began to venture into organized farming.
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The British Emancipation Act banned slavery in the Empire in 1834, although the practice was not actually ended in the English-speaking world until the U.S. Civil War a generation later. Much of Bermuda's trade was with the southern United States. While the islands remained officially neutral during the U.S. Civil War, their sympathies tended to lie with the Confederacy. The war in fact provided a boost to business, as the South paid high prices for weapons that came through Bermuda from Britain. Northern blockades were effective, and made the trip even more profitable for sailors who were willing to run a risk.
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During the end of the nineteenth century, the export of vegetables, and onions in particular, provided Bermuda with a steady income. This industry fell as the United States began to produce more onions on its own soil. However, a new industry rose to take its place. Tourism brought money and development in the form of new hotels and growing towns.
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World War I, in which exactly half of Bermuda's contingent died, brought this fledgling industry to a standstill. After the war, there was insufficient capital to renovate the few hotels, and inadequate shipping to bring the necessary visitors. When the situation seemed most bleak, however, the Furness Steamship Company in England picked Bermuda as a destination for their new vacation ships. In the 1920s, the era of Prohibition in the United States, Bermuda became a popular escape where wealthy Americans could drink on steamships and in the hotels. In the 1930s, tourism carried Bermuda through the Great Depression with hardly a break in stride.
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Soon after the beginning of World War II, when Britain "stood alone," Bermuda land was offered by a desperate Winston Churchill to entice President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the U.S. Congress to come to Britain's support. Roughly 10 percent of the country was leased for ninety years to the United States, displacing large numbers of Bermudian families. During World War II, Bermuda was used as a center of Allied operations. The British Royal Navy used it as a base for patrolling the Atlantic, and the United States built naval and military bases on the islands for protection against German submarines that posed a threat to American shipping. Bermuda was an important transit point for the Allies through the war. Winston Churchill, Dwight D. Eisenhower, and the British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan all held summits in Bermuda (as did John F. Kennedy, Richard Nixon, George Bush, and Margaret Thatcher in later years).
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In the 1960s, racial tensions grew, as blacks began to protest unfair treatment. Grassroots movements formed to more thoroughly integrate blacks into Bermudian life. In 1968, a race riot erupted in Hamilton, caused by the perception that whites only were being given access to an overcrowded fair (they were in fact stall operators). Troops were called to Bermuda from Britain on two occasions but never were needed. In the spring of 1973, Bermuda's white governor, Sir Richard Sharples, and one of his aides were assassinated at the then unguarded Government House. Scotland Yard eventually prosecuted and obtained convictions for two of the men involved. The hanging of the two men resulted in further riots in the black communities. Injuries were minimal, but some business property was damaged. Some blacks began calling for independence from Britain as a way to end racial discrimination, and in 1977 continued political agitation led the government to discuss independence. In a vote in late 1995, Bermudians rejected a proposal of independence by a two-thirds majority, mainly in fear of opening the doors to the poverty independence brought to countries like the Bahamas and Jamaica, but also in fear of shaking the confidence of foreign firms who had invested in the country. Bermuda remains an Overseas Territory of the British crown, but the question of independence still arises.
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National Identity. Bermudian identity is based largely in British cultural traditions. This is especially the case for wealthy white islanders and British expatriates. Blacks, poor whites, and those of Portuguese descent identify less with the British and their institutions. Cultural influences from the United States have also impacted life here.
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Another ethnic group, the Mahicans, are descendants of American Indians who were brought to Saint David's Island from New York in the 1600s. They call themselves Mohawks, or "Mos" for short, and retain some of their unique cultural identity.
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Ethnic Relations. The divide in Bermuda between blacks and whites began soon after the colony was established, as slaves were imported to serve the needs of the colonists. The so-called "Forty Thieves" families, descendents of the original white settlers, established a system of racial segregation in both government and social life that they perpetuated for over two centuries. Even today in the profusion of Bermuda's social clubs either blacks or whites tend to strongly predominate. Over the years, blacks have achieved important gains, but racial segregation still remains a source of tension.
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Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space
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Hamilton, the capital and largest city, is home to a number of interesting buildings, including the Anglican Cathedral of the Most Holy Trinity, built in 1894, and the Sessions House and Cabinet Building, which are the seat of government. However by far the most significant historical site is the original capital of Saint George's, a town largely unaltered since the seventeenth century. Among the many original buildings are the State House dating back to 1619 and Saint Peter's, the oldest Anglican Church in the Western Hemisphere.
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Housing is now cement block, to preserve the native coral limestone, which is today used mostly for roofing slate in housing construction. Architectural styles were adapted to withstand the extreme winds and hurricanes Bermuda experiences, and as a result large numbers of the eighteenth century homes survive. Steep limestone roofs are whitewashed and designed to catch water to be stored in tanks beneath the houses. Slave quarters still survive as extensions to a number of the old houses. Where space was at a premium in Saint George's, these were often ground floor with the family living above. Fireplaces, still widely popular, were an essential feature from the seventeenth through the nineteenth century, and were used as a source of heat, and for cooking and baking. The handsome and much-photographed chimneys doubled as buttresses for added roof support.
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Food and Economy
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Food in Daily Life. Day-to-day food is identical with that of the United States, from where much of it is imported. Traditional Bermudian cuisine is a mixture of American, British, and West Indian influences. Once abundant seafood formed the basis of many local dishes. Chowder was made from a stockpot of leftover fish carcasses and flavored with hot pepper sauce and rum. Fritters were made from now-protected conch. Hoppin' John, a meal borrowed from the Carolinas, consists of rice cooked with beans or black-eyed peas. Johnnycakes (corn-meal pancakes, served with peas and rice) are also a traditional dish.
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Rum is a popular drink. One local brand, Black Seal, when mixed with ginger beer, is appropriately called a Dark & Stormy.
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Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Sunday breakfast is generally a big meal of salt codfish from Nova Scotia, egg sauce, boiled potatoes, cooked bananas, and avocado when in season. Cassava Pie is served at Christmas. It is similar to cornbread when cooked, made from minced cassava or manioc root, eggs butter, and filled with pork and turkey or chicken. Good Friday is celebrated with a traditional breakfast of codfish cakes and hot-cross buns. Sweet potato pudding is often served on Guy Fawkes Day.
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Basic Economy. Unemployment is virtually nonexistent in Bermuda. Roughly 15 percent of the population is made up of expatriates employed on temporary permits by employers that must first prove to the government there is no Bermudian available to fill the job. "Expats" range in qualification from dishwashers to highly qualified professionals. They and their dependants are significant contributors to the economy. Of the workforce, the vast majority are in professional or administrative work or services; only 2 percent are engaged in agriculture and fishing. Farmers produce bananas, vegetables, citrus fruits, flowers, and dairy products, but agriculture is limited by the fact that only 6 percent of the country's land is arable.
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Land Tenure and Property. Bermuda's twenty-odd square miles are taxed on a progressive scale according to the assessed rental value. To protect Bermudian ownership, foreigners may only purchase at the top end of the scale, and only with permission. Corporations may only own the land allowed by their incorporating act. There is also public land, including several nature reserves, parks, and historic sites.
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Commercial Activities. Most commercial activity revolves around the tourist industry. Hotels and restaurants, golf courses, and tour companies all cater to the constant influx of visitors (84 percent of whom come from the United States). Most of the goods sold in Bermuda are imported, and therefore costly.
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Major Industries. Bermuda's dominant industry today is financial, and includes some of the world's largest re-insurance companies among other corporate enterprises of all kinds. The only restriction at this time has been a reluctance to accommodate foreign banks, for fear of losing local financial control. The earnings in this sector are now twice that of tourism, and as tourism has declined, the new housing and general services required by these corporate enterprises have absorbed much of the workforce once dependent on tourism.
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Trade. Bermuda imports machinery and transportation equipment, construction materials, chemicals, food products, and live animals, primarily from the United States, but also from the United Kingdom and Mexico. The country's main export is pharmaceuticals, which are not processed in Bermuda, but merely stop there in transit. Bermuda also exports perfume, liqueurs, and Bermuda lilies (which are popular in the United States as Easter lilies) mostly to the United Kingdom and the United States.
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Division of Labor. There is no shortage of jobs available, and people are free to choose their own professions. Blacks tend to occupy more of the lower paying positions than whites. Business ownership is substantially white, although board membership, and thus control of business, has become more diverse.
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Social Stratification
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Classes and Castes. There is a uniformly high standard of living and little poverty in Bermuda. While racial discrimination continued to haunt the country long after the abolition of slavery, blacks
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Houses overlooking St. George's Harbor. St. George's is the most historical city in Bermuda, with an abundance of seventeenth-century architecture.
have made progress in entering the government and civic life.
Symbols of Social Stratification. In general, attire is fairly formal. The famous Bermuda shorts, a legacy of the British Army's uniform, are worn by businessmen, along with jackets, ties, and knee socks. Otherwise, dress is similar to in the United States or Britain, and there are few distinguishing features among classes.
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Political Life
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Government. A 1977 constitutional conference effectively gave Bermuda full internal independence. Today, with a Westminster based parliamentary system of government, Bermuda has forty elected members in the Assembly. These choose the premier, and the premier selects a Cabinet of Ministers, each with a ministerial responsibility ranging from fiscal to education and health. The Senate is an appointed assembly, five seats by the premier, three by the opposition party, and three by the governor, of whom one is the president. The Senate cannot debate tax bills and may only delay others.
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Leadership and Political Officials. The Governor acts as Queen Elizabeth II's representative, as an advisor, and like the Queen has little actual power.
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The present ruling party is the Progressive Labour Party (PLP), almost entirely African Bermudian and formed in 1963 with those interests at heart. The PLP won power in 1998 after some thirty-five years in opposition. Prior to this, the multi-racial United Bermuda Party (UBP) held a majority, with overwhelming support among the white population and a significant percentage of blacks as well.
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Social Problems and Control. Crime is dominated by drug-related offenses. Guns are prohibited, and violent crime is relatively rare. The legal system is based on that of Britain with Magistrates and a Supreme Court and Court of Appeal. The Privy Council of the British House of Lords is the final arbiter. The Supreme Court still retains the traditional British robes, wigs, and format. There is a maximum-security prison and a more relaxed prison farm.
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Military Activity. Britain assumes responsibility for the country's defense. The military consists of the Bermuda Regiment and the Bermuda Reserve Constabulary.
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Social Welfare and Change Programs
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In 1965, funding for formalized pensions for all over the age of 65 was established and is paid for from payroll deductions. In 1997, legislation to substantially expand pensions was launched and now is in effect. Bermudians have basic hospitalization coverage, and employers customarily provide enhanced medical programs for all employees.
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Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
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There are a large number of charities and service clubs active in Bermuda. The primary Bermudian provider of funds is the Centennial Trust of the Bank of Bermuda, which has donated nearly seven million dollars (U.S.) over ten years to numerous charities and organizations. The large international business sector provides significant funds. The two larger banks, the government, and many other interests provide comprehensive scholarships.
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Gender Roles and Statuses
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Division of Labor by Gender. While women are still responsible for most everyday domestic jobs, in Bermuda they are widely represented in all aspects of business and the professions. Most senior executives are still male, but significant top positions in business and the civil service are, and have been held by women. The present and previous premiers are women.
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The Relative Status of Women and Men. Women and men are equal in law; this is widely respected by employers and in most areas of society.
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Marriage, Family, and Kinship
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Marriage. Religious ceremonies are followed by large receptions. The traditional cake is three-tiered, with one layer for the bride, one for the groom, and one that is served to the guests. The cake is topped with a cedar sapling, which the couple then plants at their new home.
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Domestic Unit. The domestic unit generally consists of the nuclear family. There is a considerable acceptance of single parenting. To be successful, and to provide role models for young males, this usually requires strong support from siblings, grandparents, and aunts and uncles in the wider family. There is often difficulty in realizing court child support rulings, and much remains unpaid.
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Inheritance. While inheritance was once limited to the male line, today women as well as men are legally entitled to inherit property.
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Socialization
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Infant Care. Infant care is generally the domain of the mother, although those of the upper class often hire nannies.
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Child Rearing and Education. Bermuda is well equipped with nursery and preschools set up to accept children of working mothers. Education is free and mandatory between the ages of five and sixteen. The school system is based on the British and American model. Several large private schools, once segregated, still lean to one race, religion, or the other. The literacy rate is near 100 percent.
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Higher Education. Bermuda has one junior college, which enrolls about six hundred students. To obtain a four-year degree, it is necessary to leave the islands, and the government and private organizations provide scholarships to study in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
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Etiquette
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Politeness is highly valued, and there is a degree of formality in social interactions.
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Religion
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Religious Beliefs. Thirty-nine percent of the population is non-Anglican Protestant; 27 percent is Anglican; 15 percent is Roman Catholic; and 19 percent practice other religions. Methodism first came to the islands in the mid-eighteenth century, and attracted a large percentage of the islands' black inhabitants. The African Methodist Episcopal (AME) church has historically been a significant unifying force in the black community. Catholicism first began to make inroads in the mid-nineteenth century, bolstered by the influx of Portuguese immigrants.
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Religious Practitioners. The Archbishop of Canterbury in England is the central religious figure for members of the Anglican Church. The Bishop of Bermuda, who presides over the Anglican Cathedral in Hamilton, is next in the hierarchy. The Anglican church in Bermuda has many black pastors, including the bishop, and numerous black congregations.
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Rituals and Holy Places. Bermuda has a number of historic churches. The oldest, Saint Peter's Church in Saint George's, was originally built in the early 1600s, and later rebuilt in 1713. The Anglican Cathedral in Hamilton is an elaborate Gothic structure with stained-glass windows and British oak sculpture. The Presbyterian Church in Warwick dates to 1719.
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Death and the Afterlife. Both Catholics and Protestants believe in an afterlife. Funeral services in the church are generally followed by mourning in the home of relatives of the deceased.
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Medicine and Health Care
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The standard of health care is high. There are two hospitals on the islands, one medical and the other psychiatric, and there are adequate doctors to provide care for most of the population. There is an air-ambulance service to the United States and established medical relationships there, in Canada, and in the United Kingdom provide specialist care not locally available. Bermuda has a low infant-mortality rate, and life expectancy is seventy-five years for men and seventy-nine for women.
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Secular Celebrations
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Holidays celebrated include New Year's Day, 1 January; Bermuda Day, 24 May (Queen Victoria's birthday); the monarch's official birthday, usually the third Monday in June; the two-day cricket, or Cup Match held on a Thursday and a Friday at the end of July or beginning of August; Labor Day, on first Monday in September; Armistice, or Remembrance Day, 11 November when wars are remembered; and Boxing Day, 26 December.
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The Arts and Humanities
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Literature. Bermuda has produced a number of writers remarkable mostly for historical and cultural studies of the islands, including Walter B. Hayward, Dr. Henry Wilkinson, William S. Zuill, Terry Tucker, Nellie Musson, Cyril Packwood, and Frank Manning and Brian Burland. Bermuda has also provided refuge and inspiration for writers from other countries, including Mark Twain, Eugene O'Neill, Munro Leaf, Noel Coward, James Thurber, Vernon Ives, and Peter Benchley.
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Graphic Arts. The Bermuda National Gallery in Hamilton, the Masterworks Foundation Gallery, and a number of smaller galleries throughout the Island display and sell work by many aspiring and successful resident artists. Hamilton's City Hall
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Theatre and the Ruth Seaton James Hall at Prospect present numerous local and traveling productions.
Many local painters and sculptors have found a market in the tourist population. Much of their work takes its inspiration from the natural surroundings; watercolor is perhaps the most popular medium. Well-known painters include the late Alfred Birdsey, his daughter Joanne Birdsey Linberg, Carol Holding, and Joan Forbes. Desmond Fountain is the country's best-known sculptor.
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Performance Arts. The Bermudian variety of Gombey, of West African origin but influenced and made unique by the early strong Native North American presence, has been passed down in family groups over centuries. Accompanied by rhythmic drums, wielding bows, arrows, and tomahawks, the dancers, including children, sport peacock feathered headdresses, masks, and capes. Many of the dances relate to biblical st. The four main Gombey troupes perform on Boxing Day and on unscheduled occasions throughout the year. West Indian calypso and reggae music are both popular.
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The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
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The Bermuda Biological Station for Research (largely funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation) has laboratories and a library for the study of marine life and environmental issues such as acid rain. There are several including the Maritime Museum complex within the restored Royal Naval Dockyard at Ireland Island. The Bermuda Aquarium and Museum is privately and government supported; it is world famous.</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-24317810233508302012012-07-15T20:50:00.000-07:002012-07-15T20:50:02.764-07:00<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jSyhhdXM_cs/UALgHXGSvoI/AAAAAAAAA6A/ab3Va6cJjNI/s1600/culure+of+america.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="212" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jSyhhdXM_cs/UALgHXGSvoI/AAAAAAAAA6A/ab3Va6cJjNI/s320/culure+of+america.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Identification. The name "America" is often used to refer to the United States, but until the political formation of the United States after the Revolutionary War, this designation referred to South America only. Contemporary use of the term to refer to the United States underlines that country's political and economic dominance in the western hemisphere. Such use of this designation is impolitic from the perspective of Canadians and Latin Americans.</div>
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The United States has an Anglo majority that is politically and economically dominant. One of the defining characteristics of the country as a nation is its legacy of slavery and the persistence of economic and social inequalities based on race.
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U.S. culture has significant regional inflections. Most Americans are aware of these differences despite the fact that these regions have experienced economic transformations and that Americans are a mobile people who often leave their regions of origin.
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The Northeast is densely populated. Its extensive corridors of urbanization have been called the national "megalopolis." Once a leader in technology and industry, the Northeast has been overtaken in those areas by California's Silicon Valley.
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The Midwest is both rural and industrial. It is the home of the family farm and is the "corn belt" and "breadbasket" of the nation. In the Great Lakes area of the upper Midwest, the automobile and steel industries were central to community and economy. As those industries declined, the upper Midwest became known as the rust belt.
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The South was shaped by its secession from the Union before the Civil War and is associated with slavery and with subsequent battles over civil rights for African-Americans. In contemporary terms, these are the sunshine states, retirement havens, and new economic frontiers.
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The West, the last national frontier, is associated with national dreams and myths of unlimited opportunity and individualism. It has the nation's most open landscapes.
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California, along with the southwestern states were ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 after the Mexican-American War. The Southwest is distinctive because of its historical ties to colonial Spain, its Native American populations, and its regional cuisine, which has been influenced by Native American and Spanish cultures.
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Location and Geography. The United States is the world's fourth largest country, with an area of 3,679,192 square miles (9,529,107 square kilometers). It includes fifty states and one federal district, where the capital, Washington, D.C., is located. Its forty-eight contiguous states are situated in the middle of North America. The mainland United States borders Canada to the north and Mexico, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Straits of Florida to the south. The western border meets the Pacific Ocean, and to the east lies the Atlantic Ocean.
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Alaska and Hawaii are not joined to the other forty-eight states. Alaska is at the extreme north of North America, between the Pacific and Arctic oceans, and is bordered by Canada to the east. The island chain of Hawaii is situated in the east-central Pacific Ocean, about two thousand miles southwest of San Francisco.
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Although Americans generally do not consider themselves an imperial or colonial power, the country has a number of commonwealths and territories, most of which were acquired through military conquest. These territories include Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands in the Caribbean basin, and Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa, and Wake island in the Pacific.
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United States
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The physical environment is extremely diverse and often spectacular. Alaska's glaciers coexist with flowering tundras that bloom in the arctic summer. The forests of the Pacific Northwest and northern California are known for giant ancient trees such as Sitka spruce and sequoia (redwoods). Niagara Falls, Yellowstone National Park, and the Grand Canyon are a few of the better-known landscapes.
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The physical regions of the country overlap both national boundaries and cultural regions. For example, the Atlantic coastal plain extends from New England to Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. It is characterized by flooded river valleys that form major estuaries, such as the Chesapeake Bay.
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The Appalachian Mountains span two cultural regions. Located to the west of the Atlantic coastal plain, they extend from the Middle Atlantic state of New York to the southeastern state of Georgia. The Appalachians are an old, eroded mountain range that is now heavily forested. It is possible to traverse the entire range by walking the two-thousand-mile Appalachian Trail.
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The interior lowlands area also crosses regions and national borders. It includes the Midwestern corn belt and the Great Plains wheat-growing region. The Great Plains section of the interior lowlands stretches into Canada.
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The Western Cordillera is part of a mountain chain that stretches from Chile in South America to Alaska. The highest peak in the country, Mount McKinley (Denali), is in the Western Cordillera in Alaska. The Western Intermontane Plateau, or Great Basin, crosses from the mountain states into the west.
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Major navigable inland waterways include the Mississippi River, which cuts north to south through the east-central part of the country; the Great lakes in the upper Midwest, the largest freshwater lake group in the world; and the Saint Lawrence River.
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The physical environment has had significant effects on regional cultures. The rich topsoil of the Midwest made it an important agricultural area; its rivers and lakes made it central to industrial development. However, settlers significantly transformed their environments, recreating the landscapes they had left behind in Europe. The vast prairies of the Great Plains, which were characterized by numerous species of tall grasses, have been transformed by irrigation and modern agricultural methods into continuous fields of soybeans and wheat. In the West, a series of pipelines and dams transformed Los Angeles and its desert surroundings into a giant oasis.
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American settlers were not the first to transform these landscapes; native American groups also altered the lands on which they depended. Fire was used in hunting, and this expanded the prairie; irrigation was used in settled communities that practiced agriculture; and maize, a crop that cannot grow without human manipulation, was a staple crop.
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The idea that the environment shapes culture or character does have cultural currency. Over a century ago, the historian Frederick Jackson Turner theorized that the American frontier experience had been instrumental in forming the rugged, independent, and democratic national character. Wilderness, independence, and democracy are common aspects of American symbolism.
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Demography. The United States has a population of over 280 million (2000 census), but it is relatively sparsely populated. The most populous state, California, with 33,871,648 inhabitants, contrasts with Wyoming, which has only 493,782 residents.
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These population figures reflect the fact that the United states is an urban nation. Over 75 percent of the inhabitants live in cities, among whom more than 50 percent are estimated to be suburban. Population growth is at below-replacement levels unless immigration is taken into account.
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One of the most significant facts about the population is that its average age is on the rise. The baby boomers born in the period from the end of World War II until the early 1960s are beginning to get old.
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Life expectancy is seventy-three years for white men and seventy-nine years for white women. African-American men have a life expectancy of sixty-seven years; in inner-city areas, the average life expectancy of African-American males is much lower. Infant mortality rates are higher among African-Americans than among whites.
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U.S. Census categories identify populations according to whether they are of European descent (white). Whites constitute a large majority at about 70 percent of the population. According to current census figures, in the year 2000 the largest minority was blacks, who number about 35 million, or 13 percent of the population.
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The Hispanic (Latino) population, which includes primarily people of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban (who may be any color) descent, is estimated to number 31 million, or 12 percent of the population. Latinos are expected to become the largest minority group early in the twenty-first century.
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The Asian population (including Pacific Islanders) is defined as people of Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Indian, Korean, and Vietnamese origin. It is estimated that there are eleven million Asians, making up about 4 percent of the population.
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The Native American population, which includes natives of Alaska such as the Inuit and Aleuts, is estimated to consist of over two million people, slightly over 1 percent of the population. Roughly a third of Native Americans live on reservations, trust lands, territories, and mother lands under Native American jurisdiction.
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Linguistic Affiliation. There is no official national language. If English is its unofficial first language, Spanish is its unofficial second language. The United States ranks fifth in the world in the number of Spanish speakers.
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Standard English is the language Americans are expected to speak. Within the social hierarchy of American English dialects, Standard English can be described as the exemplar of acceptable for correct usage based on the model of cultural, economic, and political leaders. There is no clear-cut definition of what Standard English is, and it is often defined by what it is not. For example, it often is contrasted with the type of English spoken by black Americans (African-American Vernacular English).
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Standard English grammar and pronunciation are taught by English teachers in public schools. Like "whiteness," this implies a neutral, normative and nonethnic position. However, most Americans do not speak Standard English; instead, they speak a range of class, ethnic, and regional variants.
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Spoken English includes many dialects that have been influenced by Native Americans, immigrants, and slaves. These languages include not only Dutch, German, and Scandinavian, Asian, and African languages, but less widely spoken languages such as Basque, Yiddish, and Greek. Thus, spoken English reflects the nation's immigration and history.
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As linguistic diversity has increased, and particularly as Spanish has become more widely spoken, language has become an important aspect of the debate over the meaning or nature of American culture. Linguistic and cultural diversity is accepted in states such as New York and Illinois, where Spanish bilingual education is mandated in the public schools. In California, however, where tensions between Anglos and Mexican immigrants run high, bilingual education has been abolished in the public school systems. State laws prohibit even bilingual personnel from using Spanish with Spanish-speaking patients in hospitals or with students in schools.
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Bilingual education is not new. In the nineteenth century, Germans outnumbered all other immigrant groups except for all the people from the British Isles combined. With the exception of Spanish speakers in the Southwest, at no other time has foreign language been so widely spoken. German-only newspapers and German and bilingual public schools were found throughout the Midwest and Oregon and Colorado and elsewhere from the mid-nineteenth century until World War I, when anti-German sentiment resulted in the elimination of German instruction in public schools.
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Other languages used in the press and in public schools included Yiddish, Swedish, and Norwegian. Thus, proponents of English only, who claim that bilingual education should not be provided to Spanish-speaking immigrants because earlier immigrants did not have this advantage, overlook the fact that those immigrants often were schooled in their native languages.
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Education was important in spreading English as a standard language. Public schools played a major role; by 1870, every state in the country had committed itself to compulsory education. The percentage of foreign-born persons who were unable to speak English peaked 31 percent in 1910, by 1920 had decreased to 15 percent, and by 1930 had fallen less than 9 percent. Among Native Americans, English was enforced by the establishment by the Bureau of Indian Affairs of compulsory boarding schools for school-age children. Contemporary Native American speech patterns can be traced to that experience.
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Symbolism. The flag is perhaps the most potent and contested national symbol. Made up of stripes symbolizing the original thirteen colonies and fifty stars representing the fifty states, it is displayed on national holidays such as Veterans Day, Memorial Day, Labor Day, and Independence Day. Public places and businesses raise the flag as a matter of course. Individuals who display the flag in their homes or yards make an explicit statement about their patriotic connection to the nation.
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The flag is also employed frequently as a symbol of protest. In the nineteenth century, northern abolitionists hoisted the flag upside down to protest the return of an escaped slave to his southern owner, and upside-down flags continue to be used as a sign of protest. The use of the stars and stripes design of the flag in clothing, whether for fashion, humor, or protest, is controversial and is considered by some people to be akin to treason and by others to be an individual right in a state that upholds individual rights.
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Nationalism and community solidarity frequently are expressed through sports. In the Olympic games, patriotic symbols abound, and victors are heralded for their American qualities of determination, individualism, and competitiveness. In the same way, football games connect fans to one another and to their communities through a home team. The game expresses the important value of competition: unlike soccer, American football games can never end in a tie. Football also reflects cultural ideals about sex and gender; the attire of players and cheerleaders exaggerates male and female sex characteristics.
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Aerial view along the East River of New York City, one of the largest cities in the world and perhaps the most famous.
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History and Ethnic Relations
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Emergence of the Nation. The first European settlements date from the early sixteenth century and included Spanish towns in Florida and California, French outposts in Louisiana, and British settlements in New England. The United States of America was declared in 1776 by colonists from England who wanted independence from that country and its elite representatives in the colonies.
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The class, racial, ethnic, and gender relationships of the contemporary nation have their roots in the colonial period. Unsuccessful efforts by British settlers to enslave Native Americans were followed by the importation of African slaves to work on cotton plantations in the South and of white indentured servants to work in the emerging industries in the North.
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British taxation fell disproportionately on poor white laborers and indentured servants. This sector was instrumental in organizing the protests and boycotts of British goods that culminated in the American Revolution. Women participated in the Revolution by running farms and businesses during the war.
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The egalitarian rhetoric of the Revolution did not extend to slaves, and after independence, full citizenship rights did not extend to all whites. Men and women who did not own property had no voting rights. (Women did not gain the right to vote until the early twentieth century.) The area west of the Appalachians was settled by poor whites seeking land and autonomy from wage labor.
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After 1820, when poor white men gained the vote in most states, women began to see their own lack of political rights in a new way. Women's ability to connect their powerlessness to that of men in relationship to plantation owners made them active in the abolitionist movement. However, after the Civil War when freed male slaves, but not freed women or white women, were given the right to vote, the women's suffrage movement broke with the civil rights movement in the South.
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State laws enacted in the South after the Civil War enforced racial separation by keeping freed men out of skilled and industrial jobs, limited their political rights through restrictive voting registration practices, and enforced segregation at all levels, including in housing and education.
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Women were an essential part of the industrial labor force in the early years of the nation. Their work in textile manufacturing helped provide commodities for an expanding population and freed men to work in the agricultural sector. Women were active in labor union organizing in the nineteenth century.
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A man holds trays of cooked lobster and corn on the cob at the annual Yarmouth Clam Festival in Yarmouth, Maine.
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The emerging nation also was shaped by its territorial expansion. After the Revolution, the United States included only thirteen former British colonies in the Northeast and the Southeast. Territories to the west and south of the original colonies were acquired through later purchases and concessions. The most important of these acquisitions was the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, by which the country doubled its territory. This purchase signaled the beginning of western expansion beyond the Appalachians. It became the country's "manifest destiny" to expand from the eastern to the western shore.
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During this time, the Indian wars that eventually subdued the major Native American groups and drove them west to reservation lands were waged. In 1838, President Andrew Jackson rounded up thousands of Cherokees from North Carolina and marched them to "Indian territory," then a large area that included Oklahoma. One of every four Cherokees died of cold, hunger, or disease, and the Cherokees named this march the Trail of Tears.
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Another major expansion occurred after the Mexican-American War. In 1848, Mexico was compelled to sell its northern territories to the United States. The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo conceded California and what is now the Southwest, considerably expanding the continental United States and broadening its ethnic and linguistic profile.
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In 1890, at the Battle of Wounded Knee, many of the Sioux were massacred, and the survivors were forced onto Pine Ridge Reservation. This battle marked the disappearance of the traditional Native American way of life. In the same year, the Census Bureau observed that the continental United States had been settled by whites in virtually every corner. The American frontier was considered closed.
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National Identity. Often referred to as a melting pot, the United States is popularly regarded as a nation that assimilates or absorbs immigrant populations to produce a standard American. This is a powerful cultural idea. The word "American" conjures up an image of a person of white, middle-class status. All other residents, including the area's indigenous inhabitants, are "hyphenated" or characterized by an identifying adjective: African-American, Native American, Asian-American, Mexican-American. The national Census does not hyphenate Americans of European descent.
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Huge waves of non-European immigration since the 1960s have made the United States the nation with the highest immigrant population in the world. This fact, combined with the many identity and civil rights movements that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, has created a new kind of cultural politics that challenges the country's Anglo identity and power base.
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Ethnic Relations. From colonial times, indentured servants and other poor whites constituted a buffer between landowners and slaves, who made up the bottom rung of the social ladder. Poor whites self-identified as white to associate themselves with the powerful landowning class rather than see their common interests with slaves. This process accentuated the dominance of white racial identity over class identity.
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The "whiteness" of buffer groups has been ambiguous, changing along with their position in the labor market. Although now considered white, the Irish immigrants who arrived in great numbers in the early nineteenth century occupied the lowest rungs of the labor force next to slaves and often were referred to as "white niggers."
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Between 1848, when lands from Mexico were annexed, and the 1930s, Americans of Mexican descent were classified as white. As Mexicans became important as laborers in the expanding agribusiness sector, those people were reclassified as Mexican-American. The large waves of immigrants who poured into the country from Southern and Eastern Europe between 1880 and World War I made up a new buffer group. This group included large numbers of Jews who did not come to be considered white for several generations.
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Relationships among racial and ethnic groups have been mediated by this association between status, whiteness, and position in the labor market. Between 1916 and 1929, African-American laborers migrated to the North to work in industrial jobs. Paid less than whites for comparable jobs, they were regarded by white workers as union busters and scabs. African-Americans also received less than their share of the social benefits extended to whites after World War II. Federal programs for returning veterans included housing and educational subsidies. Most of these white groups considered their own ascension into the middle class as being the result of sweat and determination.
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Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space
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The United States is an urban and suburban nation whose numerous cities each tell a story about its historical and economic development. New York, founded by the Dutch as a trading colony, was once the hunting and fishing grounds of Native Americans. It became an important industrial center in the nineteenth century, but by the mid-twentieth century its industries had declined and much of its middle class population had relocated to the suburbs. As the twenty-first century begins, New York is a "global" city resurrected from decline by its role as a center of finance in the world economy. Like New York, Chicago and Los Angeles have emerged as important cities in connected world.
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Many cities are notable for their particular regional roles. Saint Louis, situated on the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, was an important transportation hub in the nineteenth century before railroads replaced riverboats as the most efficient form of travel. Once known as the "Gateway to the West," it was the last outpost of civilization as the country expanded to the west. Today, it is possible to see the Arch, a monument to the expansionist past, from nearby Cahokia, which houses the ruins of one of the largest cities in the world of its time. Between 900 and 1300 C.E. , this city built by the indigenous Mississippian culture was larger than most contemporary European cities.
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In colonial times, cities were divided along racial and class lines. The row house, a series of attached dwellings, was a common form of housing. It symbolized the defensive posture of early settlers, whose enclaves protected them from the untamed wilderness and its Indian inhabitants. The elites lived in the central city, often with slave quarters behind their homes. The working classes and urban slaves who eventually were allowed to live apart from their masters resided in peripheral areas and the early suburbs. In early American cities, there was no separation between the workplace and the home. Most goods were produced by artisans who lived and worked in the same building. As the country industrialized, home and workplace became distinct.
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During the nineteenth century, the suburb was transformed from a space for social outcasts and the lower classes to a space for the elite. A number of factors led to the suburbanization that is central to modern American life. A romantic engagement with the countryside arose as the frontier expanded to the west and the wilderness receded from view in the East. The noise and pollution of the industrialized cities of the nineteenth century, as well as the presence of the working classes, made them less attractive to the elites. These factors combined with a transportation revolution made possible by cable cars and railroads.
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Cities were stopovers for new immigrants, who soon began to move to the suburbs, and the permanent domains of the working poor and, until recently, black Americans of all classes, who were kept out of suburbs through discriminatory real estate and zoning practices. Suburbs were organized along class and ethnic lines, and cities became the repositories of the most disadvantaged.
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The early suburbs of the elite classes were characterized by large and architecturally unique homes. Beginning in the early twentieth century, federal subsidies such as deductible mortgage interest and loan programs made suburban living a possibility for working-class and middle-class immigrants. Standard designs and quick building methods resulted in uninspired architecture but relatively inexpensive housing.
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The use of the automobile and the growth of highways made possible a nationwide suburban sprawl of which shopping malls and motels are ubiquitous reminders. Americans have a complex relationship to the suburb. On the one hand, it represents success, family life, and safety from the chaos and danger of the city, fulfilling the peculiarly American promise that every family should be able to own its own home. On the other hand, the monotony of this landscape is a metaphor for cultural conformity, social isolation, and racism.
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Fishing boats are anchored in the Lafourche Bayou in Cajun Country, Louisiana. Fishing is an important part of the Lousiana economy.
For women, suburban life is particularly ambiguous. The suburb promises a large home and yard and a safe and healthy place in which to raise children, but the single-family home isolates women from the extended family networks and friends that make child rearing less onerous.
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Suburbs are often referred to as bedroom communities, suggesting that suburbanites depend on a nearby city for employment, services, and cultural activities. However, the growth of suburban industries and services that allow suburbanites to work in their own communities points to the declining dependency of suburbs on city centers.
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By the 1970s, white flight from the cities created an urban-suburban landscape aptly described as Chocolate City/Vanilla Suburb, referring to the racial separation of blacks and whites. Cities were mythologized in the popular imagination as wild and dangerous places riddled with crime, gang violence, and drugs. Young black males and welfare mothers were the symbols of social problems.
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Beginning in the 1980s, young urban professionals began to "reclaim" the cities, rehabilitating the aging and often decrepit housing stock. This process of gentrification turns cities into the new American frontier, where professionals drawn to major financial centers such as New York and Los Angeles are the "pioneers" and black and Hispanic residents are the "Indians."
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Food and Economy
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Food in Daily Life. Americans eat large amounts of processed, convenience, and fast foods. The average diet is high in salt, fat, and refined carbohydrates. It is estimated that 60 percent of Americans are obese. The preference for packaged and processed foods is culturally rooted. Americans as a whole enjoy the taste of hamburgers, hot dogs, and junk foods. Processed foods generally are perceived to be cleaner or more safe than unprocessed foods.
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Industrial food producers use advertising to associate processed foods with the desirable modern and industrial qualities of speed, cleanliness, and efficiency. Speed of preparation was essential in a nation of nuclear family households where wives and mothers did not have relatives to help them and usually were solely responsible for food preparation.
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However, gourmet, regional, and alternative styles of eating are highly influential. Gourmet foods, including high quality fresh and local produce, imported cheeses, fine coffees, and European kinds of bread, are available in every city and in many towns.
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Regional cuisines, from cheese steaks in Philadelphia to the green chili stews of New Mexico and the grits of the South, are culinary reminders that the country encapsulates many different traditions.
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An alternative tradition is the health food movement, which includes a preference for unprocessed foods and fruits and vegetables that have not been chemically treated or genetically altered. Some health food proponents are concerned primarily with avoiding the heavily processed foods that make up the bulk of the traditional diet. Others also see the consumption of organic products, which generally are produced by small, labor-intensive farms, as a way to fight the ecological damage caused by agricultural chemicals and challenge the corporate nature of food production.
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Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Americans have few occasions that they term ceremonial. In the case of weddings, funerals, and other rites, few fixed food rules apply. Most weddings, whether religious or secular, include a large tiered cake. After the wedding, the newlyweds feed each other a piece of the cake. At Jewish funerals, fish, usually smoked or pickled, and eggs may be served as symbols of life's continuation. Some Americans, particularly in the South, eat hopping john, a dish made with black-eyed peas, to bring good luck in the New Year.
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Americans have many fixed food rituals to accompany events and occasions not generally considered ceremonial. Waking up is accompanied by coffee. Social occasions usually include alcohol. Hot dogs and beer are ubiquitous at sporting events, and popcorn and candy are consumed at movie theaters.
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Basic Economy. The United States has an advanced industrial economy that is highly mechanized. The gross national product is the largest in the world. The country more than meets its own economic needs and is the world's leading exporter of food. Moreover, it is a dominant force in world finance.
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The major challenges facing the economy are to maintain profits by keeping production costs low and to increase consumer markets. Besides mechanizing production to reduce labor costs, firms sub-contract production to less developed countries where those costs are much lower. At the same time, advertising firms that help market these goods to consumers at home and in other countries now constitute one of the biggest industries in the country.
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The basic unit of currency is the dollar, with one hundred cents making one dollar.
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Land Tenure and Property. Land tenure is based largely on private ownership, but the government owns an enormous amount of land. Private property is culturally valued, and this is best expressed in the high rate of home ownership. Historically, the United States was an agricultural nation, and it culturally has a romantic image of the small, independent farm family battling the elements on the prairie.
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The ways in which federal lands were apportioned to settlers and developers constitutes a mixed legacy. Land grants made to pioneer families and the public universities in every state point to a democratic apportionment of land. However, many private companies gained access to large tracts of public lands. For example, federal land grants made to railroads in the nineteenth century resulted in the consolidation of wealth by railroad company directors who sold parcels of that land and by timber companies that bought large tracts of forested land from the railroads at low prices. Contemporary patterns of landholding in the Pacific Northwest reflect this legacy of land accumulation by a few large timber firms.
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Commercial Activities. The vast majority of businesses are clustered within the service industry, including finance, advertising, tourism, and various professions.
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Major Industries. Important manufacturing industries include petroleum, steel, motor vehicles, aerospace, telecommunications, chemicals, electronics, food processing, lumber, and mining.
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The family farm is clearly on the decline. Most people who claim farming as their occupation work for an agricultural firm and do not own their own land. Since 1940, the United States has been the world's largest producer of wheat, corn, and soybeans, it produces over 40 percent of the world's corn and 45 percent of its soybeans. However, between 1940 and 1990, the number of farms fell from over six million to just over two million. Although occasional attention is paid to the "plight of the family farm," the growth of agribusiness has not resulted in major overt conflicts because most Americans see corporate growth as the fair outcome of free enterprise and competition.
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Tension arises in cases where property is publicly owned. During the nineteenth century, the federal government reserved large tracts of western land for federal and common uses. Logging or grazing on these lands is regulated and requires permits. During the sagebrush rebellion of the 1980s, private developers and ranchers who wanted free access to
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Overview of a summertime baseball game between the Chicago Cubs and the Colorado Rockies at Chicago's Wrigley Field. Baseball is often referred to as the "national pastime."
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these lands claimed that federal restrictions on private property ownership were anti-American. The language of this rebellion resonated with westerners in poor rural areas who believed that the federal government was usurping valuable land at their expense.
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Many environmental conflicts become battles between private developers and companies and the federal government. For example, endangered species are protected under federal rules. In the Pacific Northwest, this legislation mandated the protection of the spotted owl habitat, prohibiting logging in areas with owl nests. Loggers regarded owl protection as an assault on their livelihood and their constitutional right to private property.
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Division of Labor. The labor force has always been divided on the basis of race, ethnicity, and gender. Skilled jobs in manufacturing and management jobs typically have been more accessible to white men than to black men or women of any race. Within the service industries, there is a technological divide. Blacks and other minorities fill low-skill jobs such as food service and are found less often in managerial positions or the growing hi-tech industries.
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Social Stratification
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Classes and Castes. Most Americans do not believe that theirs is a "class" society. There is a strong cultural belief in the reality of equal opportunity and economic mobility. Rags to riches stories abound, and gambling and lotteries are popular. However, there is evidence that mobility in most cases is limited: working-class people tend to stay in the working classes. Moreover, the top 1 percent of the population has made significant gains in wealth in the last few years. Similar gains have not been made by the poorest sectors. In general, it appears that the gap between rich and poor is growing.
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Symbols of Social Stratification. Stratification is visible in many facets of daily life. The social segregation of blacks and whites in cities mirrors their separation in the labor force. The crumbling housing stock of blacks in the inner cities contrasts with giant homes in gated suburbs all across the country. Speech, manners, and dress also signal class position. With some exceptions, strong regional or Spanish accents are associated with working-class status.
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Political Life
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Government. The United States is a federal republic composed of a national government and fifty state governments. The political system is dominated by two parties: the Republicans and the Democrats. One of the features of American democracy is low voter turnout. On the average, less than half the eligible voters participate in federal elections.
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Also referred to as conservatives and liberals, respectively, Republicans and Democrats differ on certain key social issues. Republicans are generally conservative on social spending and moral issues. They support cuts in federally-sponsored social programs such as welfare. They believe in strengthening institutions such as marriage and the traditional family and usually are opposed to abortion and gay rights. Democrats tend to support federal funding for social programs that favor minorities, the environment, and women's rights. However, critics argue that these two parties set a very narrow range for political debate. Third parties that have emerged on both the left and the right include the Green, Socialist, Farm-Labor, Reform, and Libertarian parties.
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The powers and responsibilities of the Federal government are set out in the Constitution, which was adopted in 1789. The national government consists of three branches that are intended to provide "checks and balances" against abuses of power. These branches are the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The executive branch includes the President and federal agencies that regulate everything from agriculture to the military. The legislative branch includes members elected to the upper and lower houses of Congress: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court and the U.S. Court of Appeals. At the state level, government is designed along the same lines, with elected governors, senators, and assemblymen and state courts. The smallest unit of government is the county, which has an elected board, but not all states have a system of county governments.
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With the exception of the President, officials are elected directly, on the basis of popular vote. The President is elected by the electoral college. Each state has as many electors as it has senators and representatives, the latter of which are awarded according to population. Electors vote as a bloc within each state. This means that all electoral votes in a state go to the candidate with the plurality of the popular vote within that state. A candidate must win 270 electoral votes to win the election. This system is controversial because it is possible for a President to win a national election without winning a national majority of the popular vote, as happened in the presidential election of 2000.
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Leadership and Public Officials. With the exception of local-level offices, politics is highly professionalized: most people who run for political offices are lifelong politicians. Running for a high-level political office is extremely expensive; many politicians in the House and the Senate are wealthy. The expense of winning campaigns requires not only personal wealth, but corporate sponsorship in the form of donations.
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Social Problems and Control. Although crime rates have decreased, the United States remains the most violent industrialized nation in the world. The capital city, Washington, D.C., has the highest per capita crime rate in the country. In the nation as a whole, African-Americans, the poor, and teenagers are the most common victims of violent and nonviolent crime.
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The country has more people in prison and more people per capita in prison than any other industrialized nation. The prison population is well over one million. These numbers have increased since 1980 as a result of mandatory sentences for drug-related crimes. Although African-Americans make up only about 12 percent of the population, they outnumber white inmates in prison. Both African-American and Hispanic men are far more likely to be imprisoned than are white men. Although rates of imprisonment are on the rise for women, women are far less likely to be imprisoned than men of any race or ethnicity. The United States is also the only Western industrialized nation that allows capital punishment, and rates of execution for African-American men are higher than those of any other group.
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Cities are perceived to be very dangerous, but crime rate is not consistently higher in urban areas than in rural areas. The elderly tend to be the most fearful of crime but are not its most common victims. Tough penalties for violent crime are often perceived to be a solution, and it is on this basis that the death penalty is defended. Interestingly, Florida and Arizona, which have the death penalty, have the highest rates of violent crime in the country.
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The vast majority of crimes in all categories are committed by white males, but in popular culture and the popular imagination, violent criminal tendencies are often associated with African-American and Hispanic males. This perception legitimates a controversial practice called racial profiling, in
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Exterior façade of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.
which African-American and Hispanic men are randomly stopped, questioned, or searched by police.
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Historically, immigrant groups that constituted the urban "rabble" of their day were the subject of intense policing efforts and were believed to have propensities for vice and crime.
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Military Activity. The country has officially been at peace since World War II but has unofficially been in almost continuous military conflict. These conflicts have included frequent interventions in Central and South America, the Middle East, and Africa. During the period between the end of World War II and the breakup of the Soviet Union (1989), military interventions frequently involved Cold War motivations. Since that time, the country has used its military forces against Iraq and has supported efforts by other governments to fight the drug war in Central America.
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Social Welfare and Change Programs
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The Great Depression, which lasted from 1929 until World War II, posed a real threat to the legitimacy of the American economic model in the eyes of citizens. During that period, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt established a series of social programs collectively known as the New Deal. Many of those programs, including government-backed pension programs, banking insurance, and unemployment benefits, are still in place. These programs, which were intended to provide a buffer against the inevitable downturns of economic cycles, were also a response to serious social unrest, including strikes and socialist organizing.
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Americans generally are not opposed to social benefits such as social security pensions and the insurance of bank deposits. However, general relief programs for the poor, known popularly as welfare, have been very controversial. In a country that believes that all its citizens have an equal chance, where opportunity is unlimited, and where only the lazy are poor, programs for mothers and children and the indigent have been vulnerable to cutbacks. Recently, the federal government made sweeping reforms to the welfare laws that require mothers on welfare to work in order to receive benefits.
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Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
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Nongovernmental organizations (NGOS) are not as influential as they are in less wealthy nations. Among the NGOs that operate within the country, the most notable is Amnesty International, which has made both political prisoners and torture within American prisons major issues in recent years.
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More influential than NGOs are the many nonprofit institutions. These groups are not associated with government agencies or corporate interests. They include a wide spectrum of advocacy and public interest groups that deal with consumer, environmental, and social justice issues. Nonprofits are a main locus for alternative views and left-wing politics. Examples include the American Civil Liberties Union, the various Public Interest Research Groups, Fairness and Accuracy in the Media, Planned Parenthood, and the National Organization of Women.
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Gender Roles and Statuses
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Division of Labor by Gender. Although most women work outside the home, household and child-rearing responsibilities are still overwhelmingly the responsibility of women. The "double day" of women consists of working and then returning home to do domestic chores. This situation persists in spite of the cultural belief that men and women are equal. Studies carried out in middle-class homes, in which couples claim to share household duties, show that women still do the vast majority of domestic work. Although young women as a whole spend much less time on domestic chores than their mothers did, this is attributable not to the fact that men do a significant share of domestic work, but to the fact that women spend less time cooking, cleaning, and caring for children than they did in the past.
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Women are paid seventy cents to every male dollar for comparable jobs. Occupations continue to be defined along gender lines. Secretarial or low-level administrative jobs are so overwhelmingly female that they have been termed pink-collar jobs. In the white-collar world, women often occupy middle-management positions. With a few exceptions, the "glass ceiling" keeps women out of high management positions. This situation is justified on the grounds that women take time from their working lives to raise children and therefore do not spend the same amount of time developing their working careers that men do. Occupations requiring nurturing skills, such as teaching and nursing, are still predominantly female.
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Within the blue-collar sector, women are underrepresented in jobs considered to require physical strength, such as the construction industries and firefighting. Women often fill low-paid positions in industry, such as assembly-line work, sewing, and electronics assembly. This is justified on the basis that women are by nature more dextrous and that their small hands suit them to assembly-line work. It is more likely that the low wages offered by these factories explains the recruitment of female laborers, whose other options may include even less desirable seasonal and temporary work.
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The Relative Status of Women and Men. In legal terms, women have the same formal rights as men. They can vote, own property, choose to marry or divorce, and demand equal wages for equal work. They also have access to birth control and abortion. The status of women in relation to men is very high compared to the situation in many other countries.
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However, women as a whole do not receive the same social and economic benefits as men. Women are greatly underrepresented in elected political offices and are more likely to live in poverty. Female occupations both in the home and in the workplace are valued less than men's. Women are more likely than men to suffer from a sense of disempowerment and to have a distorted or low self-image.
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Marriage, Family, and Kinship
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Marriage. Marriage is formally a civil institution but is commonly performed in a church. Statistically, marriage appears to be on the decline. Half of all adults are unmarried, including those who have never married and those who are divorced. Rates of marriage are higher among whites than among blacks.
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With the exception of Vermont, civil unions are legal only between heterosexual adults. However, gay marriages are increasingly common whether or not they are formally recognized by the state. Some religious denominations and churches recognize and perform gay marriages. The high rate of divorce and remarriage has also increased the importance of stepfamilies.
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Domestic Unit. The typical model of the family is the nuclear family consisting of two parents and their children. Upon marriage, adult couples are expected to form their own household separate from either of their biological families. The nuclear family is the cultural ideal but is not always the reality. Immigrant groups have been reported to rely on extended family networks for support. Similarly, among African-American families, where adult males are often absent, extended kin ties are crucial for women raising children.
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Inheritance. Americans trace their ancestry and inherit through both the maternal and paternal lines. Surnames are most commonly adopted through the paternal line, with children taking the father's name. Women usually adopt the husband's surname upon marriage, but it is increasingly common for women to keep their own surnames and for the children to use both the father's and the mother's last names.
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Kin Groups. Family can refer to a nuclear family group or an extended kin group. The "ideal" family consists of a mother, a father, and two or three children. Americans often distinguish between blood relatives and relatives through marriage; blood relatives are considered more important. Ties among nuclear families generally are closer than ties among extended family members. Adoption is common, but reproductive technologies that allow infertile couples and gay couples to reproduce are highly valued. This reflects the importance of the concept of biological kinship in the culture.
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Alternative models of family life are important in American life. A great deal of scholarship has addressed the historical and economic conditions
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A snow-capped mountain rises above an old barn in the Mission Range Valley, Montana. The landscape of the U.S. is extremely diverse and often spectacular.
that have led to a high proportion of female-headed households and the incorporation of nonrelated members into family units among African-Americans. However, these trends are on the rise in the population as a whole. A significant number of Americans of all ethnic backgrounds live in nontraditional families. These families may consist of unmarried couples or single parents, gay couples and their children, or gay families without children.
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Socialization
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Infant Care. Infant care varies by class. In New York City, it is common to see women of Dominican and West Indian descent caring for white children. Wealthy people often employ nannies to care for infants. Nannies, who often have children of their own, may have to rely on family members or their older children to watch over their infants. Wealthy or poor, the majority of mothers work outside the home. This, coupled with the fact that many people cannot rely on their extended families to help care for their newborns, makes infant care a challenge. Some employers offer short maternity leaves for mothers and increasingly, paternity leaves for fathers who are primary caregivers.
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Child Rearing and Education. Child rearing practices are diverse, but some common challenges apply to all families. It is common to put children in day care programs at an early age. For wealthy families, this entails finding the most elite day care centers; for less wealthy families, it may involve finding scarce places in federally-funded programs. For all working families, day care can be a cause of anxiety and guilt. Negative media stories about child abuse at these centers spoke more to these anxieties than to the actual quality of care. The country makes few provisions for the care of young children considering the fact that most mothers work outside the home.
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From age five to age eighteen, public schooling is provided by the state and is universally available. School is mandatory for children until the age of sixteen. Public school education in suburban areas and small cities and towns is usually adequate or excellent.
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Inner-city schools are underfunded and have a high proportion of minority students. This reflects a history of white flight to the suburbs and a system in which schools are funded through local property taxes. Thus, in cities abandoned by wealthier whites, both tax bases and school funding have declined. The reputation of inner-city schools is so poor that families that live in cities send their children to private schools if they can afford it. Private schools are mostly white enclaves.
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Access to equal education has long been an issue for African-Americans. Until the Supreme Court struck down the doctrine of "separate but equal" in 1954, all educational institutions in the South were segregated on the basis of race. However, the legally permitted segregation of the past has been replaced by the de facto segregation of the present.
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Higher Education. The level of educational achievement is high. Most Americans complete high school, and almost half receive at least some college education. Almost one-quarter of the population has completed four or more years of college. Rates of graduation from high school and college attendance are significantly lower for African-Americans and Hispanics than for whites.
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The quality and availability of colleges and universities are excellent, but a university education is not funded by the state as it is in many Western industrialized nations. The cost of higher education has soared and ranges from a few thousand dollars annually at public institutions to more than ten thousand dollars a year at private institutions. In elite private colleges, the cost of tuition exceeds $20,000 a year.
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Among the middle classes, paying for college is a source of anxiety for parents from the moment their children are born. Students from middle-income and low-income families often pay for college with student loans, and the size of these debts is on the increase.
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Etiquette
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Personal comportment often appears crass, loud, and effusive to people from other cultures, but Americans value emotional and bodily restraint. The permanent smile and unrelenting enthusiasm of the stereotypical American may mask strong emotions whose expression is not acceptable. Bodily restraint is expressed through the relatively large physical distance people maintain with each other, especially men. Breast-feeding, yawning, and passing gas in public are considered rude. Americans consider it impolite to talk about money and age.
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Religion
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Religious Beliefs. The overwhelming majority of the people are Christian. Catholicism is the largest single denomination, but Protestants of all denominations (Baptist, Methodist, Lutheran, Presbyterian, and others) outnumber Catholics. Judaism is the largest non-Christian faith, followed by Islam, which has a significant African-American following. Baptism, the largest Protestant sect, originated in Europe but grew exponentially in the United States, especially in the South, among both whites and blacks. Aside from the many Christian movements from England and Europe that reestablished themselves early in the nation's history, a few religious sects arose independently in the United States, including Mormons and Shakers.
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Although religion and the state are formally separated, religious expression is an important aspect of public and political life. Nearly every President has professed some variety of Christian faith. One of the most significant religious trends in recent years has been the rise of evangelical and fundamentalist sects of Christianity. As an organized political-religious
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Ranchers herding cattle in the Salt Lake Valley, Utah.
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force, fundamentalist Christians significantly influence political agendas.
Another trend is the growth in New Age religions, which blend elements of Eastern religions and practices, such as Buddhism, with meditation, yoga, astrology, and Native American spirituality.
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Religious Practitioners. In addition to the practitioners of world religions such as priests, ministers, and rabbis, the United States has a tradition of nonordained and nontraditional religious practitioners. These people include evangelical lay preachers, religious leaders associated with New Age religions, and leaders of religious movements designated as cults. Women are increasingly entering traditionally male religious positions. There are now women ministers in many Protestant denominations and women rabbis.
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Rituals and Holy Places. The country does not have religious rituals or designated holy places that have meaning to the population as a whole. However, Salt Lake City is a holy city for Mormons, and the Black Hills of South Dakota and other places are sacred native American sites.
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There are many shared secular rituals and places that have an almost religious importance. Secular rituals include baseball and football games. Championship games in these sports, the World Series and the Super Bowl, respectively, constitute major annual events and celebrations. Important places include Disneyland, Hollywood, and Grace-land (Elvis Presley's estate).
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Death and the Afterlife. Americans have an uncomfortable relationship with their own mortality. Although most residents are Christian, the value placed on youth, vigor, and worldly goods is so great that death is one of the most difficult subjects to talk about.
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Death is considered a sad and solemn occasion. At funerals, it is customary to wear black and to speak in hushed tones. Graveyards are solemn and quiet places. Some people believe in an afterlife or in reincarnation or other form of continuity of energy or spirit.
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Medicine and Health Care
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The dominant approach to medicine is biomedical, or Western. Although many people are interested in alternative approaches such as acupuncture, homeopathic medicine, and other therapies, the United States continues to be less medically diverse than most other countries. Biomedicine is characterized by the frequent use of invasive surgeries such as cesarean sections and high doses of psychotropic drugs. With the exception of limited government care for the elderly and the disabled, health care is private and profit-based. This makes the United States distinct from other wealthy, industrial nations, nearly all of which provide universal health-care coverage.
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Secular Celebrations
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A number of secular national holidays are celebrated but are regarded less as celebrations of patriotism than as family holidays. The fireworks displays of the Fourth of July mark the Declaration of Independence from Britain in 1776, but this is also a time for summer outings such as picnics and camping trips with friends and family members.
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Thanksgiving is part of the national history that is understood by every schoolchild. This annual feast celebrates the hardships of the early colonists, who were starving in their new environment. According to the legend, American Indians came to their aid, sharing indigenous foods such as maize and turkey. Thanksgiving is important not primarily because of its symbolism but because it is the most significant family holiday of the year, one of the few large and elaborate meals that families prepare.
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The Arts and Humanities
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Support for the Arts. The level of public support for the arts is much lower than it is in other wealthy nations. Patronage for unknown individual artists, writers, and performers is scarce. The National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) has a very small operating budget with which it funds everything from public broadcasting to individual artists. In recent years, the NEA has been under attack from Congress, whose conservative members question the value and often the morality of the art produced with NEA grants.
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Support also comes from private donations. These donations are tax-deductible and are a popular hedge among the wealthy against income and estate taxes. Generous gifts to prestigious museums, galleries, symphonies, and operas that often name halls and galleries after their donors are essential means of subsidizing the arts.
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Literature. Much of American literature revolves around questions of the nature or defining characteristics of the nation and attempts to discern or describe the national identity. American literature found its own voice in the nineteenth century. In the early decades of that century, the essayists Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson set out the enduring themes of personal simplicity, the continuity between man and nature, individualism, and self-reliance. Walt Whitman celebrated democracy in his free verse poems.
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Other nineteenth-century writers, such as Herman Melville, Emily Dickinson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Mark Twain, articulated moral and ethical questions about the new country and were particularly influential for their critique of American puritanism.
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Turn-of-the-century writers such as Edith Wharton, Henry James, and Theodore Dreiser picked up on those themes but were particularly concerned with social class and class mobility. They explored the nature of American culture and the tensions between ideals of freedom and the realities of social conditions.
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In the early decades of the twentieth century, writers such as F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway began to question the values earlier writers had represented. Fitzgerald questioned the reality of the American dream by highlighting the corrupting influence of wealth and casting doubt on the value of mobility and success. Hemingway, like other modernists, addressed the issue of how one ought to live once one has lost faith in religious values and other social guidelines. Other early twentieth-century writers, such as Zora Neil Hurston, Nella Larsen, and William Faulkner, introduced race and racism as central themes in American literature.
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In the 1930s, the Great Depression inspired authors such as John Steinbeck and Willa Cather to write about rural America. Their novels romanticized the hard work of poor rural whites. Implicit in these novels is a critique of the wealth and excess of the urban metropolis and the industrial system that supported it. Although these novels are permeated with multiethnic characters and themes, Anglos are generally the focal point.
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Issues of identity and race were explored by earlier American black writers. A generation of black authors after World War II made these permanent themes in American literature, illustrating the poverty, inequality and racism experienced by American blacks. Many black writers explored the meaning of living inside a black skin in a white nation with a legacy of slavery. These writers included James Baldwin, Ralph Ellison, and Richard Wright. Perhaps the most influential contemporary writer who deals with these themes is Toni Morrison.
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An important literary school known as Southern Gothic discussed the nature of rural southern
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A tractor harvesting crops in the western United States. The U.S. is the world's leading food exporter.
life from the perspective of poor and middle-class whites. Writers such as Truman Capote, Tennessee Williams, Carson McCullers, and Shirley Jackson explored the contradictions between privileged whiteness and a culturally deficient southernness. These novels feature lonely, grotesque, and underprivileged white characters who are the superiors of their black playmates, servants, and neighbors but cultural inferiors in America as a whole.
Beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s, a generation known as the Beats challenged the dominant norms of white American masculinity. They rejected conventions of family and sexuality, corporate success, and money. Among the Beats were William Burroughs, Lawrence Ferlingetti, Allan Ginsberg, and Jack Kerouac.
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Starting in the 1960s, women writers began to challenge the notion that women's place was in the home. Early feminist writers who critiqued the paternalism of marriage include the nonfiction writer Betty Friedan, the novelist Marge Piercy, and the poets Anne Sexton and Sylvia Plath.
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Feminist themes, along with issues of ethnicity and otherness, continue to be important in American literature. Gloria Anzuldúa and Ana Castillo show how female and Latina identities intersect. Novels by Louise Erdrich and Leslie Marmon Silko illustrate how Native American families attempt to survive and reclaim their traditions amid poverty and discrimination.
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Other contemporary novels try to deconstruct the experience of the "norm" in American culture. Ann Tyler's characters are often empty and unhappy but cannot locate the sources of those feelings. Don Delillo writes about the amoral corporate world, the American obsession with consumer goods, and the chaos and anxiety that underlie the quietness of suburban life. Joyce Carol Oates is attracted to the sinister aspects of social conformity.
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These novels are not the most widely read looks in the United States. Much more popular are genres such as crime and adventure, romance, horror, and science fiction. These genres tend to repeat valued cultural narratives. For example, the novels of Tom Clancy feature the United States as the moral victor in cold war and post–Cold War terrorist scenarios. Harlequin romances idealize traditional male and female gender roles and always have a happy ending. In horror novels, violence allows for catharsis among readers. Much science fiction revolves around technical-scientific solutions to human problems.
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Graphic Arts. The most influential visual artists are from the modern period. Much early art was imitative of European styles. Important artists include Jackson Pollack and Andy Warhol. Warhol's art documented icons of American life such as Cambell's soup cans and Marilyn Monroe. His work was deliberately amusing and commercial. Most graphic art is produced for the advertising industry.
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Performance Arts. Performance arts include many original genres of modern dancing that have influenced by classical forms as well as American traditions, such as jazz. Important innovators in dance include Isadora Duncan, Martha Graham, and Alvin Ailey. Theaters in every town that once hosted plays, vaudeville, and musicals now show movies or have closed. In general, performance arts are available only in metropolitan areas.
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The United States has produced several popular music genres that are known for blending regional, European, and African influences. The best known of these genres are the African-American inventions blues and jazz. Among the most important jazz composers and musicians are Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Miles Davis, John Coltrane, and Thelonius Monk. Although now considered classics, blues and jazz standards were the popular music of their day.
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Music fits into "black" and "white" categories. Popular swing jazz tunes were standardized by band leaders such as Glenn Miller, whose white band made swing music hugely popular with young white people.
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Rock 'n' roll, now a major cultural export, has its roots in these earlier popular forms. Major influences in rock and roll include Elvis Presley, Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, and Bruce Springstein. Although rock 'n' roll is primarily white, soul and Motown, with singers such as Aretha Franklin, the Supremes, and the Temptations, produced a popular black music.
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Country music, another popular genre, has its roots in the early American folk music of the Southeast now termed country or bluegrass. This genre reworked traditional gospel songs and hymns to produce songs about the everyday life of poor whites in the rural Southeast.
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Popular music in the United States has always embodied a division between its commercial and entertainment value and its intellectual or political values. Country and folk, blues, rock 'n' roll, rap, and hip-hop have all carried powerful social and political messages. As old forms become standard and commercialized, their political edge tends to give way to more generic content, such as love songs.
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The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
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The United States is a leading producer and exporter of scientific knowledge and technology. Major areas of scientific research include medicine, energy, chemicals, weapons, aerospace technology, and communications. Funding for research comes from government agencies and universities as well as the private corporate sector.
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The role of private corporations in research is controversial. Pharmaceutical companies often fund research that leads to cures and treatments for diseases. One consequence is a dearth of research on diseases particular to poor countries. Another consequence is that medicines are marketed at costs that are prohibitive to the poor both inside and outside of the country.
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In the face of technology and science as being culturally valued, an increasing cause of social concern is the fact that American schoolchildren do not do well on standardized tests in the sciences.
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<br /></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-19916034972589558972012-07-15T07:56:00.002-07:002012-07-15T20:43:41.496-07:00Culture Of Northern Ireland<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Yn2N1E_02VI/UALZlaxp7EI/AAAAAAAAA5w/Xjax10Kk3T4/s1600/northen.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Yn2N1E_02VI/UALZlaxp7EI/AAAAAAAAA5w/Xjax10Kk3T4/s320/northen.jpg" width="320" /></a><br />
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Identification. The island of Ireland is known as Eire in Irish Gaelic. The name of the capital city, Belfast, derives from the city's Gaelic name, Beal Feirste, which means "mouth of the sandy ford," referring to a stream that joins the Lagan River.</div>
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The state of conflict in Northern Ireland is manifested in the names by which the Northern Irish identify themselves. Ulsters or Ulster Unionists identify themselves by ethnicity, religion, and political bent. These residents are generally Protestants from England who colonized the country in the nineteenth century and earlier supported William of Orange when he wrested the throne of England from the Catholic James II. The Nationalists are native Irish who were ruled by Irish chiefs. They are Roman Catholics who want Northern Ireland to be reunited with the Republic of Ireland, removing the northern counties from the sovereignty of England. The Ulster Unionists remain politically, religiously, and culturally loyal to England, yet feel that Northern Ireland is their homeland. Nationalists believe that the land is theirs, and their loyalty is to their compatriots in the Free State of Southern Ireland.
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Location and Geography. Northern Ireland is the smallest country in the United Kingdom, situated on the second largest island of the British Isles. It occupies one-sixth of the island it shares with the independent Republic of Ireland. Northern Ireland is composed of six of the twenty-nine counties of Ireland, covering about 5,452 square miles (14,120 square kilometers). It is separated from the Republic of Ireland by a three-hundred-mile-long artificial boundary. Northern Ireland makes up the northwestern corner of the island; the entire island is bordered on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the Irish Sea, and on the south by the Celtic Sea. The waters around Northern Ireland's coast are shallow.
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The climate is mild as a result of Atlantic Ocean breezes and the Gulf Stream, with comfortable summers and temperate winters. Snow is uncommon, and temperatures dip below freezing only a few times a year. However, rainfall is heavy. Low mountains with steep cliffs dropping off to the sea and fertile lowlands are the principal topographic features. The two major mountain ranges are the Sperrin Mountains and the Mourne Mountains. Most of the farmable land, in the middle of the country, is used as grazing pastures for livestock. Lough Neagh, in central Northern Ireland, is the largest lake in the British Isles.
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Until seven thousand years ago, Ireland was linked to Europe by a land bridge, but the ocean eroded that bridge and separated Ireland from the continent. Scotland lies just thirteen miles east of the island across the English Channel.
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The Upper Bann River begins in the Mourne Mountains and flows northwest for twenty-five miles before entering Lough Neagh. The Erne River, which is seventy-two miles long, starts in the Republic of Ireland and flows northward into Northern Ireland. The Foyle River, marking the northwestern boundary with the Republic of Ireland, passes through Londonderry and empties into the Atlantic Ocean, becoming a bay called Lough Foyle.
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Soggy areas called peat bogs have developed in parts of the country. The bogs contain layers of vegetation that have partly decayed in the moist earth. As the layers build up, they form a thick crust of turf that is called peat. This turf, originally cut by hand, is now cut by machine. The resulting
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<b><i>Northern Ireland
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briquettes are burned for fuel and remain the major source of heat and electricity in rural areas.
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Demography. In 1998, the Annual report of the Registrar General for Northern Ireland reported the population of Northern Ireland to be 1,668,000. The population is most dense in the east. In the 1980s, the population was described as being 70 percent Protestant and 30 percent Catholic, but 60 percent Protestant and 40 percent Catholic may be more accurate. The population breakdown is difficult to ascertain because many residents are reluctant to indicate their religion.
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Catholic families have a higher birthrate because of their religious beliefs and their desire to surpass the population of the Unionists. Stability in the population has resulted from the fact that many Catholics were forced to go to London to escape unemployment.
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Linguistic Affiliation. English is spoken throughout the country, and the native language of Gaelic, or Gaeltacht, is disappearing. Many Gaelic speakers died in the Great Famine of the 1840s, and Gaelic was replaced by English, which was needed to achieve social mobility. Gaelic still carries a stigma as the language of the poor.
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Gaelic is a Celtic language that probably was introduced by Celts in the last few centuries B.C.E. Similar to Scottish Gaelic, it shares common structures with Welsh and Breton. It is an idiomatic language with a complex grammatical system that is considered rich in terms of warmth and expressiveness. Irish is required at some schools but is taught with an emphasis on grammar rather than conversation. The Gaelic League, formed in 1893, is a revivalist organization, that attempts to propagate the Irish language and culture. In the 1920s, the Gaelic League attempted to deanglicize the country by gaelicizing the schools. It wanted to require that all teachers at teacher training colleges have a background and proficiency in Irish. However, the league realized that Gaelic would languish if it was not also used in the home environment.
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Symbolism. The Union Jack flag and the British crown are associated with the Unionists both by their Protestant supporters and by their Catholic opponents. Members of the Orange Order have a picture of the crown on the huge drums that are used in the parades in which Orangemen celebrate the victory of William of Orange over James II at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. Another image associated with the rivalry between Loyalists and Nationalists is the Ulster emblem of a right hand severed at the wrist from which no blood should flow.
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Northern Ireland is recognizable by its lush green countryside and stout mountains leading down to a steep and craggy shoreline. The flag of the Free State of Ireland, which has equal vertical bands of green, white, and orange is a symbol of the Irish nation.
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History and Ethnic Relations
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Emergence of the Nation. Prior to 1920 the island of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Government of Ireland Act of 1920 founded the Irish Free State and allowed six Ulster counties to remain part of the United Kingdom, becoming Northern Ireland. The Irish Republican Army (IRA) opposed the establishment of the Irish Free State. In 1925, an agreement among the Irish Free State, Northern Ireland, and Great Britain partitioned Ireland and defined the borders. Catholic residents of Ulster did not want to see Ireland divided, but Protestant business leaders wished to remain linked to England. In 1936, the Irish Free State proclaimed its complete independence, and in 1949 it renamed itself the Republic of Ireland. Since 1974, the United Kingdom has ruled Northern Ireland directly.
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National Identity. The Northern Irish see themselves as distinct from the English but connected to their compatriots in the Republic of Ireland. The Northern Irish see the British of Northern Ireland as interlopers and oppressors.
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Ethnic Relations. Violent antagonism between Catholics and Protestants developed in the nineteenth century and resulted from history and religion. The influx of settlers from England and Scotland was not welcomed by the native Irish, since the newcomers were awarded the best parcels of land. At first, the minority Ulster Protestants could not dominate the Catholic majority, but after the victory of the Protestants supporting William of Orange at the Battle of the Boyne, they prevailed.
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Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space
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Particularly in Belfast, most decisions involving public planning are made to preserve public security in the midst of "the Troubles." Many of the busiest streets in that city have control zones where only pedestrians can travel. Automobiles are not allowed in those zones to reduce the risk of car bombings. Cars that are parked in commercial parking lots are given a quick inspection for potential bombs. The boundaries that separate Catholic and Protestant neighborhoods are enforced by the police.
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Graffiti and wall murals appear throughout urban areas, depicting the sentiments of Unionists and Nationalists. In the case of the Nationalists, IRA propaganda and images of men with guns tell supporters to "fight back" and state that "we will meet force with force." Catholic children learn from graffiti the strong views and potential for violence held by the Nationalists.
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In a sign welcoming travelers to the County of Londonderry, Nationalists have expressed their anti-British feelings by scratching out the word "London" and identifying the county as Derry, as it is known among Catholics. At Free Derry Corner, two large murals commemorate the events of
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A memorial to fourteen unarmed marchers who were shot by British paramilitary troops during a civil rights march in Derry on Sunday 30 January 1972. Since 1974, the United Kingdom has ruled Northern Ireland directly.
Bloody Sunday, in which thirteen people were killed and another fourteen were injured, after British soldiers opened fire during an illegal demonstration in 1972.
The Ulster Architectural Heritage Society is an organization that educates the public and lobbies for historic buildings in nine counties in Northern Ireland.
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<b>Food and Economy
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Food in Daily Life. The diet is rather simple. Porridge or oatmeal often is eaten at breakfast. At midmorning, one stops for a cup of tea or coffee with cookies or biscuits. Most people eat the main meal at midday. This meal generally is meat-based, featuring beef, chicken, pork, or lamb. Fish and chips are eaten for a quick meal, and a rich soup with plenty of bread can be bought in taverns at lunchtime. Potatoes are a staple, but onions, cabbage, peas, and carrots are eaten just as frequently. Irish stew combines the chief elements of the cuisine with mutton, potatoes, and onions.
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Bakeries carry a variety of breads, with brown bread and white soda bread served most often with meals. White sliced bread is called pan in Irish. Belfast's soda bread enjoys an excellent reputation; made of flour and buttermilk it is found throughout the country. In the evening, families eat a simple meal of leftovers or eggs and toast.
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A drink generally means beer, either lager or stout. Guinness, brewed in Dublin, is the black beer most often drunk. Whiskey also is served in pubs, and coffee is also available.
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Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Food customs of the Northern Irish are not really different from the practices of the Irish in the Republic of Ireland. Christmas supper includes meat such as chicken and ham followed by plum pudding. Being a strongly Catholic country, the Friday night prohibition of meat is observed by Catholics. Since fish is permitted, the Friday evening meal generally features trout or salmon.
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Basic Economy. The economy of Northern Ireland is based on agriculture and manufacturing. The agriculture sector benefits from rich farming soil. Agriculture contributes to manufacturing through processing of livestock and dairy products. Northern Ireland's principle industries are textiles, shipbuilding, and engineering.
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Unequal resources and unequal opportunities resulting from colonization have created conflict. The ethnic and religious strife is really a matter of an uneven distribution of economic resources and opportunities.
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Land Tenure and Property. The current distribution of land between Catholics and Protestants can be traced back to the settlement patterns of the seventeenth century. The eastern counties of Antrum and Down were settled by the Scottish because of their proximity to Scotland. The settlers who later came from the north of England got land in Monaghan. In the 1600s, the incoming Protestants took the best land for farming, leaving the Catholics with less fertile and more mountainous parcels. As a result, a majority of Protestants established roots in Antrum and Down as well as Armagh and Londonderry.
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Commercial Activities. The Industrial Revolution occurred in Belfast during the twentieth century and made the country the world's major linen center and the home of two flourishing shipyards. The success of shipbuilding spawned related industries in engineering and rope making.
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Major Industries. Northern Ireland, Belfast in particular, has always been an industrial center. Early in the twentieth century, the major industries were shipbuilding and rope making. The success of Belfast's industries kept it inextricably bound to Great Britain, from which it imported its raw materials. The owners and managers of most industries were Protestants, reinforcing the paternalistic relationship to England.
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Trade. As much as 80 percent of external trade is with England. Textiles, in particular linen, are the major export. Grain also is exported; during the Great Famine, grain and foodstuffs were exported to England, with little done to relieve the starving Irish people.
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Division of Labor. Catholics generally are excluded from skilled and semiskilled jobs in shipyards and linen mills. They historically were restricted to menial jobs on the docks, earning lower wages than the Protestants who worked in skilled jobs and management positions. Ulster Unionists tend to own businesses. Many Catholic Republicans are unemployed.
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Social Stratification
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Classes and Castes. The class structure renders Protestants superior in that they dominate the professional and business classes, tending to own the majority of businesses and large farms. Catholics tend to be unskilled workers or work small farms. Catholics tend to be poorer than Protestants as a result of economic inequality that often is attributed to ethnic and religious roots. The general enmity between the two groups is exacerbated by long standing prejudices. Protestants generally believe that Catholics are lazy and irresponsible. Social separation contributes to these perceptions. Protestant and Catholic families live in separate enclaves and worship separately, and their children study in segregated schools.
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Irish Catholics may tend to drink, whereas Protestants are viewed as more British and puritanical. On Sundays, Catholics often engage in leisure or recreation activities after mass, while Protestants scorn Sunday leisure activities, often choosing not to garden in deference to the sabbath.
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Symbols of Social Stratification. Protestants tend to comport themselves as British, members of the United Kingdom. In regard to owning land and businesses, Protestants constitute the economic, social, and political elite. Their accent and manners are in keeping with those of Great Britain. Catholics, who tend to be poorer and have larger families, speak Gaelic, although not fluently. Most Protestants belong to the Orange Order, which is dedicated to maintaining the Protestant religion and Protestant social superiority.
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Political Life
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Government. Northern Ireland is symbolically headed by the British monarch but it is governed by an elected parliament. The Ireland Act of 1920 established a parliament that was suspended in 1972 because of the ethnic violence. The makeup of the parliament is intended to include fifty-two delegates in the Northern Ireland House of Commons who serve five-year terms. The House selects twenty-four Senate members who serve eight-year terms. House members choose the prime minister from the political party that holds the most seats.
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The judicial system is similar to that of England, in which the courts base decisions on parliamentary legislation and common law. A magistrate hears minor cases, and more serious cases are heard by the Crown Court, which is made up of a judge and jury. Any appeals go before a nine-judge court in the British House of Lords.
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There is no written constitution. The three viable political options are the continuance as part of the United Kingdom, association with the Republic of Ireland, and independence. The country has the
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Farmhouse in mountains of Mourn. Northern Ireland has lush green countryside and stout mountains leading to a steep and craggy shoreline.
right to self-determination under the Northern Ireland Constitution Act of 1973, but unless there is a majority vote for independence or a formal alliance with Ireland, it will remain part of the United Kingdom.
Leadership and Political Officials. Each of the twenty-six districts has an elected council. Belfast and Londonderry have their own councils, which focuses on education, public works, local planning and public health. Protestants tend to hold most elected positions, and this has led to an uneven distribution of resources.
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In the 1830s, the Catholic Emancipation Act allowed Catholics to seek election to the British legislature. However, Protestant leaders in Northern Ireland gerrymandered the voting districts so that the Catholics were always a minority in every district.
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Social Problems and Control. Most violence results from the civil unrest between Catholics and Protestants. Bombings and individual attacks generally are motivated by the politically charged atmosphere and segregation. Nonpolitical crimes are generally based on socioeconomic inequity. Burglary and theft accounted for nearly three-quarters of all recorded crime in Northern Ireland in 1995. Between 1990 and 1995, the number of arrests for drug-related offenses more than tripled.
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Military Activity. The presence of British police and military personnel is pervasive. There are police checkpoints, and citizens must carry documents routinely. The Ulster Volunteer Force is a Unionist military organization that is highly secretive and has been labeled a terrorist group since it is openly anti-Catholic. The Ulster Defense Association was a legal organization until 1991. The Royal Ulster Constabulary and the British Army are responsible for keeping the peace; the Royal Ulster Constabulary employs a special branch of army intelligence to anticipate and prevent all terrorist attacks.
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The Irish National Liberation Army is composed of older, more experienced members. The Provisional Irish Republican Army is a descendant of the original IRA. In this secretive group, which is a military wing of the IRA, each member knows only the names of his immediate colleagues. The IRA has detonated bombs under cars, striking at the moment a police patrol passes. The IRA has killed twenty to thirty soldiers and police officers per year since the 1980s.
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Young Nationalists are recruited for paramilitary service. First they join Fionna Eireann as a scout or recruit. To prove themselves, young initiates must participate in the beating or kneecapping of a Protestant.
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The military carries out regular security patrols in Unionist and Loyalist areas on foot or in police or army vehicles. The 1974 Prevention of Terrorism Act was passed to prevent the IRA from extending its attacks to Great Britain; it authorizes detention for up to seven days for anyone seemingly engaged in terrorism in Northern Ireland, Great Britain, or the Republic of Ireland.
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Social Welfare and Change Programs
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Social insurance benefits exist for orphans, widows, pensioners, and persons on disability or maternity leave. The state, the employer, and the employee all contribute to the fund that provides these benefits. Health services and medicines are free to all persons with long-term illnesses. Beyond that, there are two kinds of entitlements: free health services for those who have a low income and a lower level of services for people with higher incomes.
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Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
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Most nongovernmental organizations operating in the country, including the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission and the Northern Ireland Assembly, are concerned with human rights and human rights violations resulting from violent attacks by the IRA and the British Army. The Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, which was established by the Northern Ireland Act of 1988, has the duty and power to ensure the human rights of all residents and to counter human rights violations.
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Gender Roles and Statuses
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Division of Labor by Gender. The position of women in the economic structure shifted during the period of direct rule, with more women entering the workforce between 1952 and 1995 as the number of jobs expanded. Typically, women work in low-paid, part-time jobs in the service sector, and even though their participation in the workforce has increased, it has remained below that of men.
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The most dramatic increase in women's employment was that of married women after a constitutional revision. In 1937, the constitution reflected religious bias by stating that a working woman who married had to resign from her job. It was not until 1977 that an Employment Equality Act made that practice illegal.
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The Relative Status of Men and Women. Women have become increasingly involved in the peace movement. The Northern Ireland Peace Movement, which began in 1976, allied Protestant and Catholic women who marched together through both Loyalist and Republican parts of Belfast. Two of the founders, Mairead Corrigan and Betty Williams, received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1976 for their efforts to unite Catholics and Protestants to halt the violence.
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Marriage, Family, and Kinship
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Marriage. Premarital chastity is valued by both religions, especially in rural areas. Young people are expected to abstain from sex until after they are married in a religious ceremony in a church. Marriages often are brokered by a matchmaker since the economic aspects of marriage require experienced calculation. In the 1920s, postfamine marriages were infrequent, with many young people abstaining from marriage; there were more single than married people in the age range of twenty-five to thirty. Farmers who had small plots of land wanted to keep it and they discouraged early marriages of their children to avoid the need to subdivide the land.
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In the 1970s, marriage rates increased, but Ireland was joining the West in embracing the nuclear family model. While more marriages occurred, married couples were having smaller families. By 1977, the birthrate had declined by one-third. This trend toward nuclear families applied to both Catholics and Protestants, although Catholics still had larger families. Even after marriage, contraception, which is forbidden by the Roman Catholic Church, is not legally obtainable in much of the country.
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Since the 1600s, when the Scots and English arrived, very little intermarriage between those ethnic groups and the original Irish inhabitants has occurred. However, it is said that as many as one-fifth of marriages in Belfast today are between a Catholic and a Protestant; this figure may be exaggerated.
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Domestic Unit. Families tend to live together in nuclear units in government housing projects that reinforce the separation of Catholics and Protestants. Catholics get smaller, older houses, while Protestant government officials award new or upgraded dwellings to other Protestants. Catholics tend to have larger families, making their homes more crowded. The government once talked about altering family assistance to favor smaller families but decided that move would lead to charges of religious discrimination from Catholics.
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Inheritance. Inheritance customs changed after the 1920s. After the famine, farmers felt betrayed by the land, and the generations of birthright to a family's land stopped. Farmers who had small plots wanted to hold on to what they had and were reluctant to subdivide their parcels to hand down to their sons.
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Generally the father would give his land to one son, not necessarily the oldest. Only then could that son take a bride. Often this did not take place until the father reached the age of seventy, at which time an old age pension allowed him to bequeath his land. In the meantime, the grown children who were not going to inherit land had no place in the home and usually emigrated or looked for work as craftsmen in a neighboring town.
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Parents enjoy a patriarchal status and the father claims the best chair near the fire. Historically, when parents retired and passed their land to a son, they stopped sleeping in the kitchen and moved to a smaller room in the back of the house, where they would display heirlooms and religious pictures that previously were kept in the main hearth area.
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Kin Groups. Kinship is reinforced by religion, class, and socioeconomic status. Catholics feel a kinship among themselves as the minority as well as links to their coreligionists in the Republic of Ireland. Protestants associate with their British heritage and identify with their compatriots in Great Britain in terms of religion, socioeconomic status, and class. Nuclear families are the main kin group, with relatives involved as kin in the extended family. Children generally adopt the father's surname. The first name is generally a Christian name, usually the name of a saint.
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Socialization
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Infant Care. Infant mortality as measured in the 1926 Dublin census was high. In the 1990s the infant mortality rate fell to a level lower than that in Europe as a whole.
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Child Rearing and Education. The mother raises younger children. However, when a boy makes his first communion, generally at age seven, his father rears him alongside his older brothers. Education is compulsory from ages six to fifteen. Schools are
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Main street of Enniskillen. Families tend to live together in nuclear units in government housing projects.
segregated, with Catholics attending parochial schools and Protestants attending public schools.
Higher Education. Queen's University in Belfast, which was founded in 1845 and originally was called Queen's College, is the most prestigious university. About eight thousand students study there, mostly in the sciences. The Union Theological College was founded in 1853. In 1968, the New University of Ulster opened in Colraine; two thousand students are enrolled. Vocational schools include the Belfast College of Technology, Ulster Polytechnic in Newtownabbey, and the Agricultural College. Assembly College, founded in 1853, is a Presbyterian training school.
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Etiquette
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Rules of etiquette are situational and are affected by status and class. While political conversations in pubs may be intense, political discussions occur only among friends and people with similar views. People are reluctant to discuss their political, religious, social, and economic views with outsiders.
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Religion
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Religious Beliefs. For Catholics, Good Friday, Easter, and Christmas are the most holy days and are observed by attending church services and spending time with the family. While Catholic-Protestant conflict has worsened in the last century, the religious and political history between the two groups goes back centuries. In 1534, King Henry VIII of England established himself the leader of a new church of Protestantism that he tried to impose in Ireland. He offered to increase the landholdings of Irish nobles who would recognize the new church. However, few of the Irish, and none in Ulster, accepted the offer. In 1541, Henry declared himself king of Ireland and outlawed monasteries. In 1547, Edward VI, his son and successor, declared Protestantism the official religion of Ireland and dispatched troops to enforce the new law. Those troops arrested Irish nobles and seized the property of those who refused to convert. Edward gave the confiscated land to the English Protestants who were settling there. Elizabeth I continued that policy and enforced Protestantism. In 1560, she was named head of the Irish Church and insisted that English, not Gaelic, be used in religious services.
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Religious Practitioners. The Catholic clergy provide a link between God and the Catholic congregants. This represents a significant difference between Roman Catholics and Protestants. Catholic clergy participate in the civil rights movement in an attempt to equalize the volatile conflict. However, Protestants complain that the Catholic clergy exacerbate the situation by interfering with politics when they support Nationalist candidates and participate in demonstrations against the British Army.
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Rituals and Holy Places. The headquarters of the Catholic and Protestant churches are located in Armagh. Each religion has a cathedral named for Saint Patrick, a fifth century missionary who brought Christianity to the Celts of the island.
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Death and the Afterlife. Protestants believe that the Catholic Church teaches that salvation is found only in their religion, which means that the Protestants are heretics damned to eternal damnation. Catholics killed in "the Troubles" are venerated as martyrs.
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Medicine and Health Care
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A national health care program was started in the 1950s. The Department of Health and Social Services administers the health care system by using tax revenues. Many services are free, such as hospitalization and maternity coverage.
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Secular Celebrations
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Saint Patrick's Day is the most widely celebrated secular holiday and is characterized by vigorous parades. New Year's Day is celebrated on 1 January. The controversial annual pride parade of the Orange Order is held on Orange Day on 12 July to celebrate and commemorate the victory of Prince William of Orange over King James II. This Protestant organization had about ninety thousand members in the 1990s. The public parade and celebration evoke tension in Belfast, often provoking Nationalists to violence.
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The Arts and Humanities
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Support for the Arts. Since the partition of Ireland is artificial, there is no real distinction between the two cultures.
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Established in 1962, the Arts Council of Northern Ireland is the prime distributor of public support for the arts. Its mission is to develop and improve the knowledge, appreciation, and practice of the arts; to increase public access to and participation in the arts; and to encourage and assist artists.
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Literature. Most Irish literature has been written by authors in and around Dublin. However, Northern Ireland produced the Nobel Prize-winning poet, Seamus Heaney, who has published many collections of poems. His career parallels the violent political struggles of his homeland, but he is fascinated primarily by the earth and the history embedded there. His verse incorporates Gaelic expressions as he explores the themes of nature, love, and mythology. His poems use images of death and dying, and he has written elegiac poems to friends and family members lost to "the Troubles." Northern Ireland is also the birthplace of C. Day Lewis, who wrote novels and verse and taught and translated classical literature. Lewis was named poet laureate of the United Kingdom in 1970.
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Graphic Arts. Celtic designs can be seen in artistic and everyday images. The Celtic influence appears in the lettering on shop signs, letterheads, jewelry, and tombstones.
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Performance Arts. Irish music incorporates fiddles, bagpipes, drums, flutes, and harps. Folk music is performed in pubs and parades. The Ulster National Orchestra in Belfast and the Philharmonic Society are the leading classical musical groups. Traditional Irish music has grown very popular outside the country in the last decade.
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The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
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Queen's University has a strong reputation in the sciences. Many of the eight thousand members of the student body receive undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in agriculture, food science, and horticulture. The university has research programs in livestock production and crop and grass production as well as food quality and processing to improve the competitiveness of the beef, sheep, and pig livestock sectors.
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<br /></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-68475327834020065322012-07-06T19:29:00.000-07:002012-07-06T19:29:15.381-07:00Culture Of Eritrea<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Identification. The term "eritrea" derives from Sinus Erythraeus, the name Greek tradesmen of the third century B.C.E. gave to the body of water between the Arabian Peninsula and the Africa continent (now known as the Red Sea). Later, during the Roman Empire, the Romans called it Mare Erythraeum, literary meaning "the red sea." When Italy colonized a strip of land along the Red Sea in 1890, they gave it the name Eritrea.<br />
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Since the creation of Eritrea was so closely linked to Ethiopia, Eritrea's identity developed in struggles against its ancient and larger neighbor to the south. Many of the nine ethnic groups within Eritrea are also found in Ethiopia, and the dominant Christian Orthodox highland culture of Ethiopia also stretches into the Eritrean highland plateau. Historically, there has been a division in Eritrea between the Christian highlands, which are culturally and linguistically homogenous, and the predominantly Muslim lowlands, which are culturally and linguistically heterogeneous. Eritrea's long war of liberation, however, managed to bridge some of the traditional differences between the highland and lowland populations.
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Location and Geography. Located in northeastern Africa, Eritrea has about 620 miles (1,000 kilometers) of coastline along the west coast of the Red Sea. To the north and northwest, the country borders the Sudan, to the south, Ethiopia, and to the southwest, Djibouti. Eritrean territory covers about 48,000 square miles (125,000 square kilometers) and contains a wide variety of rugged landscapes: mountains, desert, highland plateau, lowland plains, and off the coast some 150 coral islands. The topographical variety has affected the social organization and mode of production of the country's nine ethnic groups. In the highland plateau, people live in small villages conducting subsistence plow-agriculture. Many of the lowland groups, however, lead semi-nomadic pastoral or agro pastoral lives. The Eritrean capital, Asmara, is located in the highland plateau, the home region of the biggest ethnic group, the Tigrinya.
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Demography. The population in Eritrea is approximately three to three-and-a-half million (1994), divided between nine ethnic groups. The highland Tigrinya group constitutes about half of the population. More than 75 percent of the population lives in rural areas.
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Linguistic Affiliation. Although the Eritrean Constitution states that all nine ethnic languages in the country are equal, the government of Eritrea has two administrative languages: Tigrinya and Arabic. Tigrinya is a Semitic language also spoken by the Tigreans of Ethiopia. Arabic was chosen to represent the lowland Muslim groups in the country. Nevertheless, only one ethnic group, the Rashaida, has Arabic as a mother tongue, whereas the other groups use it as a religious language. Many of the groups are bilingual, and because of the legacy of Ethiopian domination over Eritrea, many Eritreans also speak Amharic, the Ethiopian administrative language. Eritrean pupils are today taught in their mother tongue in primary levels (one through five), and English takes over to be the language of instruction from sixth grade (at least in theory). English is taught as a second language from second grade. It appears, however, that Tigrinya is taking over as the dominant language, since the majority of the population are Tigrinya-speakers, the biggest towns are located in the highlands, and most people in government and the state bureaucracy are from the Tigrinya ethnic group.
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Symbolism. Since Eritreans fought a thirty-year-long war of liberation (1961–1991) to achieve independence from Ethiopian domination, the national
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Eritrea
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culture endorsed by the government invokes symbols of war and sacrifice. The three main national holidays all commemorate the war of liberation: 24 May, Liberation Day; 20 June, Martyr's Day; and 1 September, a holiday that commemorates the start of the liberation war. The official Eritrean flag, adopted in 1993, is a combination of the flag of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front, the liberation movement that achieved a military victory over the Ethiopian government, and the old flag given to Eritrea by United Nations in 1952.
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History and Ethnic Relations
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Emergence of the Nation. The Eritrean-Ethiopian region has been exposed to population movements and migrations from northern Africa, across the Red Sea, and from the south. On the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia, one also finds traces of some of Africa's oldest civilizations. The Axumite empire, which emerges into the light of history in the first century C.E. , comprised the Akkele-Guzai region of highland Eritrea and the Agame region of Tigray, Ethiopia. The empire expanded and its port city of Adulis, south of present-day Massawa, became an important trading post hosting ships from Egypt, Greece, the Arab world, and other far-off areas. In the early fourth century Enzana, the king of Axum, converted to Christianity. He thus established Christianity as the religion of the court and state, making the Ethiopian/Eritrean Christian Church one of the oldest in the world. The decline of the Axumite empire began around 800, when its area of dominance became too big to administer efficiently. Moreover, local resistance and uprisings coupled with the domination of overseas trade by the Islamic empire in the Middle East led to the collapse of the kingdom. Ethiopia was subsequently constructed on the legacy of Axum.
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The Italian colonization of Eritrea in 1890 marked the first time that Eritrean territory was ruled as a single entity. Under Italian colonial administration, infrastructure was developed, and a modern administrative state structure was established. The development of the Eritrean colonial state helped to create a distinction between Eritreans as subjects of the Italian crown and their ethnic brothers in Ethiopia. The notion that Eritrea was more developed and modern than Tigray and the rest of Ethiopia helped to boost Eritrean national consciousness.
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Italy—which had occupied Ethiopia in 1935— saw its dream of an East African empire crushed in World War II. British forces liberated Ethiopia from the Italian colonizers and took control of Eritrea in 1941. Eritrea was administered by the British Military Administration until 1952, when the United Nations (UN) federated Eritrea with Ethiopia. Ethiopia soon violated the federal arrangement, however, and in 1962 Ethiopia annexed Eritrea as its fourteenth province. The year before the annexation, the Eritrean armed resistance against Ethiopian rule commenced. It would take thirty years of liberation war before the Eritrean People's Liberation Front managed to oust Ethiopian forces from Eritrean soil, one of the longest wars of liberation in Africa. In 1993 the Eritrean people voted overwhelmingly in favor of independence in a UN-monitored referendum.
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National Identity. Eritrea's long struggle for self-determination and independence has created a feeling of nationhood based on a common destiny. The armed struggle was initiated by the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) in 1961, but in 1970 an ELF splinter group formed a new organization that later took the name Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF). During periods of the 1970s, a fierce civil war raged between the ELF and the EPLF. In 1981, the EPLF, with the help of the Tigrean People's Liberation Front in Ethiopia, managed to crush the ELF as a military organization. From then on, the EPLF deliberately used its military struggle and its internal policy of social revolution—which included land reform, gender consciousness, and class equality—to achieve a national cohesion. The EPLF recruited fighters from all the country's ethnic groups. The fighters and the civilian population in the liberated areas were educated in Eritrean history and the EPLF ideology of a strong territorial nationalism.
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Following the vote for independence in 1993, the EPLF took power in Asmara and continued their centrally-driven nationalistic policies. For instance, eighteen months of national service became compulsory for all men and women between the ages of eighteen and fifty-five. Moreover, new multiethnic regions ( zoba ) were established in 1997, abolishing the old ethnicity-based regions ( awraja ). The strongest force of Eritrean nationalism after independence derives from the border wars Eritrea fought against Yemen, Djibouti, Sudan, and Ethiopia. The conflict with Ethiopia, which erupted in 1998, escalated into a full-scale war that claimed tens of thousands of casualties. During this war, the majority of the able-bodied population of Eritrea had to serve in the national military forces. A peace treaty with Ethiopia was negotiated by the U.N. and Organization of African Unity (OAU) and signed 12 December 2000.
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At the turn of the millennium, mounting criticism and resistance, most notably from lowland groups and intellectuals, against the monopolistic role of EPLF was coming to the fore and splitting the unitary, nationalistic impression of an all-embracing Eritrean identity. Much of the criticism reflected the view that the EPLF was a monopolistic, Tigrinya-dominated front that was subduing the interests and cultures of the minority groups.
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Ethnic Relations. The highland Tigrinya ethnic group is the dominant group, numerically, politically, and economically. There is also a minority group of Tigrinya-speaking Muslims called Jeberti in the highlands. The Jeberti, however, are not recognized as a separate ethnic group by the Eritrean government. The lowland groups—the Afar, Beja/Hadarab, Bileyn, Kunama, Nara, Rashaida, Saho, and Tigre—are all, with the exception of the Tigre, relatively small and, taken together, they do not form any homogenous cultural or political blocs. Traditionally, the relationship between the highland and lowland groups has been one of tension and conflict. Raids on livestock and encroachment on land and grazing rights have led to mutual distrust, which is still, to a certain degree, relevant in the relation between the minorities and the state. Many of the groups are also divided between Eritrea and Ethiopia, Sudan, and Djibouti, making cross-border ethnic alliances a possible threat to the national identity.
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An Eritrean woman harvesting Teff in Geshinashim. The Eritrean economy is totally dependent on agriculture.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space
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The architecture of Eritrean towns reflects the nation's colonial past and the shifting influence of foreign powers. The Italian population in the country called Asmara "Little Rome." The city boasts wide avenues, cafés and pastries, and a host of Italian restaurants. The port of Massawa, on the other hand, is influenced by the Ottoman period, the Egyptian presence, and the long tradition of trade with far-off countries and ports. In the countryside, traditional building customs are still upheld. In the highlands, small stone houses ( hidmo ) with roofs made of branches and rocks dominate. The house is separated into two areas, a kitchen section in the back and a public room in the front that is also used as sleeping quarters. The various lowland groups employ several housing styles, from tentlike structures ( agnet ) among the pastoral nomadic groups, to more permanent straw or stone/mud huts among the sedentary groups.
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Food and Economy
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Food in Daily Life. Eritrean cuisine is a reflection of the country's history. The injerra is commonly eaten in the rural areas. It is a pancake-like bread that is eaten together with a sauce called tsebhi or wat . The sauce may be of a hot and spicy meat variety, or vegetable based. In the urban centers one finds the strong influence of Italian cuisine, and pasta is served in all restaurants. The lowland groups have a different food tradition than the highlands with the staple food being a porridge ( asida in Arabic) made of sorghum.
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Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Both Islam and the Orthodox Christian tradition require rigorous observance of fasts and food taboos. Several periods of fasting, the longest being Lent among the Orthodox and Ramadan among Muslims, have to be adhered to by all adults. During religious celebrations, however, food and beverages are served in plenty. Usually an ox, sheep, or goat is slaughtered. The meat and the intestines are served together with the injerra. Traditional beer ( siwa )is brewed in the villages and is always served during ceremonial occasions.
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Basic Economy. The Eritrean economy is totally dependent upon agricultural production. Over 75 percent of the population lives in the rural areas and conducts subsistence agricultural production, whereas 20 percent is estimated to be traders and workers. No major goods are produced for export, but some livestock is exported to the Arabian peninsula.
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Land Tenure and Property. The granting of equal land right use to all citizens, irrespective of sex, ethnicity, or social class, has been a political priority for the EPLF since the days of the armed struggle. After independence, the Eritrean government passed a new land proclamation abolishing all traditional land tenure arrangements, and granting the ownership of all land to the Eritrean state exclusively. Accordingly, each citizen above the age of eighteen has the right to receive long-term usufruct rights in land in the place he or she resides. The Eritrean government has not yet fully implemented the new land proclamation, and land is still administered under traditional communal tenure forms. Land scarcity is widespread in Eritrea, particularly in the densely populated highland plateau. Thus, any reform touching upon the sensitive issue of access to land necessarily creates controversies.
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Commercial Activities. Agricultural production and petty trade make up the bulk of the commercial activity in Eritrea. The informal economy is significant, since petty traders dominate the many marketplaces throughout Eritrea, where secondhand clothing, various equipment, and utensils are sold.
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Major Industries. The marginal industrial base in Eritrea provides the domestic market with textiles, shoes, food products, beverages, and building materials. If stable and peaceful development occurs, Eritrea might be able to create a considerable tourism industry based on the Dahlak islands in the Red Sea.
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Trade. Eritrea has limited export-oriented industry, with livestock and salt being the main export goods.
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Division of Labor. In urban areas, positions are filled on the basis of education and experience. Key positions in civil service and government, however, are usually given to loyal veteran liberation fighters and party members.
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A large share of trade and commercial activity is run by individuals from the Jeberti group (Muslim highlanders). They were traditionally denied land rights, and had thus developed trading as a niche activity.
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Social Stratification
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Classes and Castes. Eritrean society is divided along ethnic, religious, and social lines. Traditionally, there were low caste groups within many of the ethnic groups in the country. The last slave was reportedly emancipated by the EPLF in the late 1970s. The traditional elites were the landowning families. After land reforms both during and after the liberation struggle, however, these elites have ceased to exist. Generally, in the rural areas, the people live in scarcity and poverty and few distinctions between rich and poor are seen. In the urban areas, however, a modern elite is emerging, composed of high-ranking civil servants, business-people, and Eritreans returning from the diaspora in the United States and Europe.
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Symbols of Social Stratification. In the rural areas, the better-off are able to acquire proper clothing and shoes. The rich may have horses or mules to carry them to the market. A sign of prosperity among the pastoral groups is the display of gold jewelry on women.
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Political Life
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Government. Eritrea is a unitary state with a parliamentary system. The parliament elects the president, who is head of state and government. The president appoints his or her own cabinet upon the parliament's approval.
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No organized opposition to the government party, the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ; the re-named EPLF) is allowed in practice. The new constitution, which was ratified in May 1997 but not put fully into effect, guarantees the freedom of organization, but it is too early to say how this will influence the formation of political parties.
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Leadership and Political Officials. The president of Eritrea, and the former liberation movement leader, Isaias Afwerki, is the supreme leader of the country. In addition to serving as president, he fills the roles of commander-in-chief of the armed forces and secretary-general of the ruling party, the PFDJ. He is held in high regard among large portions of the population because of his skills as the leader of the liberation movement. Former liberation movement fighters fill almost all positi ons of trust both within and outside the government.
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Social Problems and Control. With the coming to power of the EPLF, strong measures were used to curtail the high rate of criminality in Asmara. At the turn of the millennium, Eritrea probably boasted some of the lowest crime rates on the continent. The people generally pride themselves in being hard working and honest, and elders often clamp down on youths who are disrespectful of social and cultural conventions.
Growing tensions between the lowland minority groups and the Tigrinya—reinforced by the Muslim-Christian divide and Ethiopia's support for Eritrean resistance movements—may threaten the internal stability in the country.
Military Activity. As a result of the 1998–2000 war with Ethiopia, Eritrea was characterized as a militarized society in the early twenty-first century. The majority of the population between the ages of eighteen and fifty-five had been mobilized to the war fronts, and the country's meager funds and resources were being spent on military equipment and defense. Since Eritrea gained independence in 1993, the country has had military border clashes with Yemen, Djibouti, and Sudan, in addition to the war with Ethiopia. This has led to accusations from the neighboring countries that Eritrea exhibits a militaristic foreign policy. There are indications that the Eritrean government uses the military to sustain a high level of nationalism in the country.
Social Welfare and Change Programs
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The government of Eritrea is concentrating its development policies on rural agriculture and food self-sufficiency. Few resources are available to social
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Women carrying water from a river two hours away from their homes in Adi Baren, Akeleguzay.
welfare programs. Reconstruction of destroyed properties, resettlement of internally displaced people, and demobilization of the army are huge challenges facing the government. Few national or international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are allowed to implement social welfare programs on their own initiative.
Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
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The Eritrean government prides itself on its policy of self-reliance, rejecting development aid projects that are not the priority of the government. The majority of international NGOs were expelled from the country in 1998, although all were invited back later due to the humanitarian crisis caused by the war with Ethiopia. The government restricts the development of national NGOs, and foreign aid has to be channelled through governmental organizations.
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Gender Roles and Statuses
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Division of Labor by Gender. Since subsistence agriculture is the main production activity in Eritrea, the division of labor is influenced by custom. Women's input in agricultural production is vital but certain tasks, such as plowing and sowing, are conducted only by men. Animals are generally herded by young boys, while young girls assist in fetching water and firewood for the household.
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The Relative Status of Women and Men. Since Eritrean society is still highly influenced by customary principles, the status of women in many communities is inferior to that of men. The war of liberation, where female fighters served side by side with men, was believed to have changed the status of women. The EPLF culture of gender equality, however, did not penetrate deeply into the Eritrean patriarchal culture. Nevertheless, with the government's policies of modernization and gender awareness, changes are slowly occurring in the status of Eritrean women.
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Marriage, Family, and Kinship
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Marriage. Customary rules of marriage vary among the ethnic groups. Generally, girls marry at an early age, sometimes as young as fourteen. A large share of the marriages in the rural areas are still arranged by the family groups of concern.
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Domestic Unit. Generally, people live together in nuclear families, although in some ethnic groups the family structure is extended. The man is the public decision-maker in the family, whereas the woman is responsible for organizing the domestic activities of the household.
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Inheritance. Inheritance rules in Eritrea follow the customary norms of the different ethnic groups. Generally, men are favored over women, and sons inherit their parents' household possessions.
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Kin Groups. The nuclear family, although forming the smallest kin unit, is always socially embedded in a wider kin unit. The lineage and/or clan hold an organizing function in terms of social duties and obligations and as a level of identity. With the exception of the Kunama who are matrilineal, all ethnic groups in Eritrea are patrilineal, that is, descent is traced through the male line.
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Socialization
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Infant Care. In all ethnic groups, children are raised under the strong influence of parents and close relatives, as well as neighbors and the kin group. While conducting domestic chores or working in the fields, mothers usually carry the infants on their backs.
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Child Rearing and Education. From an early age, both boys and girls are expected to take part in the household's activities: boys as herders of the family's livestock, girls as assistants to their mother in domestic affairs. An increasing number of children is joining the formal educational system, although education sometimes conflicts with the children's household obligations. In some of the nomadic and seminomadic communities, children might be unable to regularly attend classes in the formal educational system.
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In some ethnic groups, circumcision is used as an initiation ritual into adulthood. The majority of both Eritrean men and women are circumcised. Female circumcision, or female genital mutilation, is carried out both among Christians and Muslims, although the type of circumcision differs from clitoridectomy to infibulation (the removal of the labia and partial closing of the vagina by approximating the labia majora in the midline).
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Higher Education. The institutions of higher education in Eritrea are few, and the only university, Asmara University, admits a limited number of students. In the rural areas most people take up farming, which does not presuppose any formal education. The better-off families and those with relatives abroad try to send their children to the United States or Europe for further education and work.
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Eritrean men have traditionally been considered the family decision-makers.
Etiquette
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Eritreans pride themselves on being hard working and resilient, and they show great social responsibility. Respect for elders and authority is deeply rooted. Compared to the urban population of Asmara, the peasantry keeps a tighter social discipline in relation to open, public affection between two people of the opposite sex. Boys and men, however, are frequently seen holding hands as a sign of friendship.
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All traditional foods are eaten using the right hand only and without the use of silverware. The left hand is considered impure.
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Religion
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Religious Beliefs. The population is almost equally divided between Christians and Muslims, with the number of Christians being slightly larger. In addition, there are some followers of traditional beliefs among the Kunama group. The Orthodox Christian tradition in Eritrea stretches back to the fourth century, and Orthodox Christianity forms an integral part of the Tigrinya cultural expression. Catholicism and Lutheranism are also represented. Some syncretism with traditional beliefs is found among both Christians and Muslims. The government has been criticized for discriminating against and persecuting the country's Jehovah's Witnesses.
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Religious Practitioners. All Eritreans are either Christians or Muslims (except a few followers of traditional religion among the Kunama), thus the religious practitioners are the formalized clergy and ulama, respectively. Since the rural Eritrean community is deeply religious, the clergy and ulama have an influential position in the everyday lives of their followers.
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Rituals and Holy Places. Since Christianity and Islam are equally recognized by the state, the main religious holidays of both faiths are observed, including both Christian and Muslim celebrations: Both Western and Ge'ez Christmas, the Epiphany, Id Al-Fetir, Good Friday and Ge'ez Easter, Id Al-Adha, and Mewlid El-Nabi.
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Death and the Afterlife. The beliefs and practices concerning death, funerals, and the afterlife follow some of the norms of the two religions—Orthodox (Coptic) Christianity and Islam. Funeral practices, however, may vary among the ethnic subgroups who follow Islam.
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Medicine and Health Care
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The formal health care system is poorly developed. Poor sanitary conditions in the rural areas and lack of tap water create a high rate of infant mortality. Numerous other health problems, including malaria and HIV/AIDS, lack of food and proper water supplies, and lack of trained personnel, continue to burden Eritrea's development of an efficient health care system. Traditional medical beliefs are widespread in the rural areas.
<br />
<br />
Secular Celebrations
<br />
<br />
Upon gaining independence Eritrea changed its calendar from the Julian to the Gregorian. But the reckoning of time according to the Julian calendar exists unofficially and is known as the Ge'ez calendar. The official state holidays are: New Year's Day (1 January); International Women's Day (8 March); May Day (1 May); Liberation Day (24 May); Martyr's Day (20 June); Launching of Armed Struggle (1 September); Ge'ez New Year (11 September; 12 September in leap years); and Meskel (the finding of the true cross) celebrations (27–28 September).
<br />
<br />
The Arts and Humanities
<br />
<br />
Because of the protracted war of liberation, the development of arts and humanities has been hindered. Some new artists in postliberation Eritrea are emerging, however, with an artistic focus on the country's struggle for independence.
<br />
<br />
Support for the Arts. Since the Eritrean society is extremely poor, the government needs to prioritize its funds for development efforts, leaving little for the arts. However, some support is given to cultural shows and exhibits that portray the cultural variety of the Eritrean people. Support is also given to exhibits and shows that display the hardships and sacrifices of the thirty-year war of liberation.
<br />
<br />
The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
<br />
<br />
The Eritrean government gives priority to building academic capacity within scientific fields that relate to the reconstruction of the war-torn country. Priority is also given to research into the environment and agricultural production, in order to secure food self-sufficiency.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-39247910773677901132012-06-02T18:30:00.000-07:002012-07-15T07:37:15.655-07:00Culture Of Egypt<i><b>Language in Egypt
</b></i><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Bcp_Wi05ysA/T_eadlYAkdI/AAAAAAAAA1Y/vv-yjcv96vk/s1600/photo_lg_egypt.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="211" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Bcp_Wi05ysA/T_eadlYAkdI/AAAAAAAAA1Y/vv-yjcv96vk/s320/photo_lg_egypt.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
For almost 13 centuries Arabic has been the written and spoken language of Egypt. Before the Arab invasion in AD 639, Coptic, the language descended from ancient Egyptian, was the language of both religious and everyday life for the mass of the population; by the 12th century, however, it had been totally replaced by Arabic, continuing only as a liturgical language for the Coptic Orthodox Church. Arabic has become the language of both the Egyptian Christian and Muslim. The written form of the Arabic language, in grammar and syntax, has remained substantially unchanged since the 7th century. In other ways, however, the written language has changed the modern forms of style, word sequence, and phraseology are simpler and more flexible than in classical Arabic and are often directly derivative of English or French.</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
Why not learn some useful Arabic phrases?<br />
Egyptian Society & Culture
<br />
<br />
<b><i>IslamIslam in Egypt
</i></b><br />
<br />
Islam is practised by the majority of Egyptians and governs their personal, political, economic and legal lives. Islam emanated from what is today Saudi Arabia. The Prophet Muhammad is seen as the last of God's emissaries (following in the footsteps of Jesus, Moses, Abraham, etc) to bring revelation to mankind. He was distinguished with bringing a message for the whole of mankind, rather than just to a certain peoples. As Moses brought the Torah and Jesus the Bible, Muhammad brought the last book, the Quran. The Quran and the actions of the Prophet (the Sunnah) are used as the basis for all guidance in the religion.
<br />
<br />
Among certain obligations for Muslims are to pray five times a day - at dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, and evening. The exact time is listed in the local newspaper each day. Friday is the Muslim holy day. Everything is closed. Many companies also close on Thursday, making the weekend Thursday and Friday.
<br />
<br />
During the holy month of Ramadan all Muslims must fast from dawn to dusk and are only permitted to work six hours per day. Fasting includes no eating, drinking, cigarette smoking, or gum chewing. Expatriates are not required to fast; however, they must not eat, drink, smoke, or chew gum in public.
<br />
<br />
Each night at sunset, families and friends gather together to celebrate the breaking of the fast (iftar). The festivities often continue well into the night. In general, things happen more slowly during Ramadan. Many businesses operate on a reduced schedule. Shops may be open and closed at unusual times.
<br />
<br />
<b><i>Family Values
</i></b><br />
<ul>
<li>The family is the most significant unit of Egyptian society.
</li>
<li>Kinship plays an important role in all social relations.
</li>
<li>The individual is always subordinate to the family, tribe or group.
</li>
<li>Nepotism is viewed positively, since it is patronage of one's family.
</li>
<li>The family consists of both the nuclear and the extended family.
</li>
<li>Egyptian Honour
</li>
<li>Honour is an important facet of interpersonal relationships.
</li>
<li>Respect and esteem for people is both a right and an obligation.
</li>
<li>An individual's honour is intricately entwined with the reputation and honour of everyone in their family.
</li>
<li>Honour requires that Egyptians demonstrate hospitality to friends and guests.
</li>
<li>It also dictates that people dress as well as their financial circumstances allow, and show proper respect and deference to their elders and those in authority.
</li>
<li>A man's word is considered his bond and to go back on your word is to bring dishonour to your family.
</li>
</ul>
<i><b>Social Class
</b></i><br />
<ul>
<li>Social class is very apparent in Egypt since it determines your access to power and position.</li>
<li>The social class an Egyptian is born into dictates their everyday life and the opportunities they will have.
</li>
<li>There are three social classes: upper, middle, and lower.
</li>
<li>Status is defined more by family background than by absolute wealth.
</li>
</ul>
There is little social mobility<br />
<br />
<b><i>Etiquette & Customs in Egypt
</i></b><br />
<br />
Meeting EtiquetteMap of Egypt
<br />
Greetings are based on both class and the religion of the person.<br />
It is best to follow the lead of the Egyptian you are meeting.
v
. Handshakes are the customary greeting among individuals of the same sex<br />
Handshakes are somewhat limp and prolonged, although they are always given with a hearty smile and direct eye contact.
v
. Once a relationship has developed, it is common to kiss on one cheek and then the other while shaking hands, men with men and women with women.<br />
In any greeting between men and women, the woman must extend her hand first. If she does not, a man should bow his head in greeting.<br />
<br />
<b><i>Gift Giving Etiquette
</i></b><br />
<br />
If you are invited to an Egyptian's home for dinner, bring good quality chocolates, sweets or pastries to the hostess.<br />
Do not give flowers, which are usually reserved for weddings or the ill, unless you know that the hosts would appreciate them.<br />
A small gift for the children shows affection.<br />
Always give gifts with the right hand or both hands if the gift is heavy<br />
Gifts are not opened when received<br />
<br />
<b><i>Dining Etiquette
</i></b><br />
<br />
If you are invited into an Egyptian's house:<br />
<br />
You would normally remove your shoes before entering.
<br />
Dress well and conservatively. Appearances are important to Egyptians.<br />
Compliment the host on the house.<br />
<br />
<b><i>Table manners
</i></b><br />
<br />
ait for the host or hostess to tell you where to sit.<br />
Eat with the right hand only.<br />
It is considered a sincere compliment to take second helpings.<br />
Always show appreciation for the meal.
. Salting your food is considered an insult.<br />
Leave a small amount of food on your plate when you have finished eating. Otherwise they will keep filling it up for you!<br />
<br />
<b><i>Business Etiquette and Protocol in Egypt
</i></b><br />
<br />
<b><i>Relationships & Communication
</i></b><br />
<br />
Egyptians prefer to do business with those they know and respect, therefore expect to spend time cultivating a personal relationship before business is conducted.
<br />
Who you know is more important than what you know, so it is important to network and cultivate a number of contracts.<br />
Expect to be offered coffee or tea whenever you meet someone, as this demonstrates hospitality. Even if you do not take a sip, always accept the beverage. Declining the offer is viewed as rejecting the person.<br />
Since Egyptians judge people on appearances wear good quality conservative clothes and present yourself well at all times.<br />
Egyptians believe direct eye contact is a sign of honesty and sincerity, so be prepared for disconcertingly intense stares.<br />
Egyptians are emotive and use hand gestures when they are excited. In general, they speak softly, although they may also shout or pound the table. This is not indicative of anger; it is merely an attempt to demonstrate a point.<br />
You should demonstrate deference to the most senior person in the group, who will also be their spokesperson. This is a country where hierarchy and rank are very important.<br />
<br />
<b><i>Business Meeting Etiquette
</i></b><br />
<br />
Appointments are necessary and should be made in advance.
<br />
Confirm the meeting one week in advance, either in writing or by telephone.<br />
Reconfirm again a day or two before the meeting.<br />
Meetings are generally not private unless there is a need to discuss matters confidentially. In general, Egyptians have an open-door policy, even when they are in a meeting. This means you may experience frequent interruptions. Others may even wander into the room and start a different discussion. You may join in, but do not try to bring the topic back to the original discussion until the new person leaves.<br />
High- level government officials often adhere to more western business practices and hold private meetings without interruptions<br />
Business meetings generally start after prolonged inquiries about health, family, etc.<br />
If you send an agenda and presentation materials in advance of the meeting, send both an English and Egyptian Arabic translation.<br />
<br />
<b><i>Business Negotiation
</i></b><br />
<br />
The social side of business is very important. Egyptians must know and like you to conduct business. Personal relationships are necessary for long-term business.
<br />
Business is hierarchical. The highest ranking person makes decisions, after obtaining group consensus.
. Decisions are reached after great deliberation.<br />
If the government is involved, discussions will take even longer since approval must often be given by the ministers of several departments.<br />
Business moves at a slow pace. The society is extremely bureaucratic. It may take several visits to accomplish a simple task.<br />
It is advisable to include older people with impressive titles in your team since Egyptians respect age and experience.<br />
Expect a fair amount of haggling. Egyptians seldom see an offer as final.<br />
Egyptians do not like confrontation and abhor saying 'no'. If they do not respond, it usually is a negative sign.<br />
Always include research and documentation to support your claims.<br />
Do not use high-pressure tactics.<br />
Egyptians are tough negotiators.<br />
<br />
<b><i>Dress Etiquette
</i></b><br />
<br />
Business attire is formal and conservative. Dress well if you want to make a good impression.
<br />
Men should wear dark coloured, lightweight, conservative business suits, at least to the first meeting.<br />
Men should avoid wearing visible jewellery, especially around the face and neck.<br />
Women must be careful to cover themselves appropriately. Skirts and dresses should cover the knee and sleeves should cover most of the arm.<br />
<br />
<b><i>Business Cards
</i></b><br />
<br />
Business cards are given without formal ritual.
<br />
Have one side of your card translated into Egyptian Arabic.<br />
Always hand the card so the recipient may read it.<br />
Make a point of studying any business card you receive before putting into your business card case.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-77565990385408057692012-05-09T00:07:00.001-07:002012-05-29T22:34:39.871-07:00Google Cultures Of Vietnam<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-4L0BW4VXqBw/T6oFZuVRx1I/AAAAAAAAAqk/IOP1AL__k4k/s1600/hue+temple+from+vietnam.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="213" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-4L0BW4VXqBw/T6oFZuVRx1I/AAAAAAAAAqk/IOP1AL__k4k/s320/hue+temple+from+vietnam.jpg" width="320" /></a><b style="color: blue;">The Language
</b></div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
Vietnamese, Vietnam's official language, is a tonal language that can be compared to Cambodia's official language, Khmer. With each syllable, there are six different tones that can be used, which change the definition and it often makes it difficult for foreigners to pick up the language.
</div>
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<br /></div>
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There are other languages spoken as well such as Chinese, Khmer, Cham and other languages spoken by tribes inhabiting the mountainous regions. Although there are some similarities to Southeast Asian languages, such as Chinese, Vietnamese is thought to be a separate language group, although a member of the Austro-Asiatic language family.
</div>
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In written form, Vietnamese uses the Roman alphabet and accent marks to show tones. This system of writing called quoc ngu, was created by Catholic missionaries in the 17th century to translate the scriptures. Eventually this system, particularly after World War I, replaced one using Chinese characters (chu nom), which had been the unofficial written form used for centuries.
</div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: red; font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
Vietnamese Culture & Society
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="color: blue; font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Confucianism Map of Vietnam
</b></i></div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
The teachings of Confucius influence the Vietnamese describe the position of the individual in Vietnamese society.
</div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
Confucianism is a system of behaviours and ethics that stress the obligations of people towards one another based upon their relationship.
</div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
The basic tenets are based upon five different relationships:
</div>
<ul style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<li>Ruler and subject
</li>
<li>Husband and wife
</li>
<li>Parents and children
</li>
<li>Brothers and sisters
</li>
<li>Friend and friend
</li>
<li>Confucianism stresses duty, loyalty, honour, filial piety, respect for age and seniority, and sincerity.
</li>
</ul>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: blue; font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<i><b>The Family
</b></i></div>
<ul style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<li>Vietnamese life revolves around the family.
</li>
<li>The Vietnamese family consists of the nuclear as well as the extended family.
</li>
<li>it is not uncommon for three generations to be living together under one roof.
</li>
<li>In Confucian tradition, the father is the head of the family and it is his responsibility to provide food, clothing and shelter and make important decisions.
</li>
<li>Within the same tradition it is believed that after someone dies their spirit lives on. Descendents will "worship" their ancestors to ensure their good favour. On the anniversary of a person's death, ceremonies are held in their memory. They are also remembered during certain lunar festivals and souls are consulted prior to important decisions or occasions such as a birth or a wedding.
</li>
</ul>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: blue; font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Face
</b></i></div>
<ul style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<li>As with many other Asian nations, the concept of face is extremely important to the Vietnamese.
</li>
<li>Face is a tricky concept to explain but can be roughly described a quality that reflects a person's reputation, dignity, and prestige.
</li>
<li>It is possible to lose face, save face or give face to another person.
</li>
<li>Companies as well as individuals can have face or lose face.
</li>
<li>For foreigners it is important to be aware that you may unintentionally cause a loss of face so it is important to be aware of your words and actions. Understanding how face is lost, saved or given is critical.
</li>
<li>Someone can be given face by complimenting them for their hospitality or business acumen. Accusing someone of poor performance or reprimanding them publicly will lead to a loss of face.
</li>
</ul>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: blue; font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Collectivism
</b></i></div>
<ul style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<li>In general, the Vietnamese are a collectivists.
</li>
<li>The individual is seen as secondary to the group - whether the family, school or company.
</li>
<li>As a result there are strict guidelines for social interaction that are designed to protect a group's face
</li>
</ul>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: blue; font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Hierarchy
</b></i></div>
<ul style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<li>As with most group-orientated societies there are also hierarchical structures.
</li>
<li>In Vietnam these are very much based upon age and status.
</li>
<li>This derives from Confucianism, which emphasizes social order. Everyone is seen as having a distinct place and role within the hierarchical structure, be it the family or workplace.
</li>
<li>An obvious example is seen in social situations where the oldest person in a group is greeted or served first.
</li>
<li>Within the family the head would be responsible for making decisions and approving marriages.
</li>
</ul>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: blue; font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Etiquette and Customs in Vietnam
</b></i></div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
Vietnamese society has a fair amount of public etiquette. The following are some of the more common points:
</div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
Avoid public displays of affection with a member of the opposite sex.
</div>
<ul style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<li>Do not touch someone's head.
</li>
<li>Pass items with both hands.
</li>
<li>Do not point with your finger - use your hand.
</li>
<li>Do not stand with your hands on your hips.
</li>
<li>Do not cross your arms on your chest.
</li>
<li>Do not pass anything over someone's head.
</li>
<li>Do not touch anyone on the shoulder.
</li>
<li>Do not touch a member of the opposite sex.
</li>
<li>Shorts should only be worn at the beach.
</li>
</ul>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: blue; font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Dining Etiquette
</b></i></div>
<ul style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<li>If invited to a Vietnamese home:
</li>
<li>Bring fruit, sweets, flowers, fruit, or incense.
</li>
<li>Gifts should be wrapped in colourful paper.
</li>
<li>Do not give handkerchiefs, anything black, yellow flowers or chrysanthemums.
</li>
</ul>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: blue; font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Table Manners
</b></i></div>
<ul style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<li>Wait to be shown where to sit.
</li>
<li>The oldest person should sit first.
</li>
<li>Pass dishes with both hands.
</li>
<li>The most common utensils are chopsticks and a flat spoon.
</li>
<li>Chopsticks should be placed on the table or a chopstick rest after every few mouthfuls or when breaking to drink or speak.
</li>
<li>People hold bowls close to their faces.
</li>
<li>Hold the spoon in your left hand while eating soup.
</li>
<li>Meals are typically served family-style.
</li>
<li>Try to finish everything on your plate.
</li>
<li>When you are finished eating, rest your chopsticks on top of your rice bowl.
</li>
<li>Cover your mouth when using a toothpick.
</li>
</ul>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: red; font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Business Etiquette and Protocol
</b></i></div>
<div style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: blue; font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<i><b>Etiquette in Vietnam
</b></i></div>
<ul style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">
<li>Appointments are required and should be made several weeks in advance.
</li>
<li>The best means of doing so is through a local representative who can act as a reference and also translator/interpreter.
</li>
<li>The Vietnamese are punctual and expect others to be so to.
</li>
<li>Dress conservatively.
</li>
<li>Handshakes are used upon meeting and departing. Handshakes only usually take place between members of the same sex.
</li>
<li>Some Vietnamese use a two-handed shake, with the left hand on top of the right wrist.
</li>
<li>Always wait for a woman to extend her hand. If she does not, bow your head slightly.
</li>
<li>Business cards are exchanged on initial meetings and should be presented with both hands. When receiving business cards ensure you show proper respect to it and do not simply glance at it and put it on the table.
</li>
<li>Hierarchy and face manifest in different ways within business meetings. For example, the most senior person should always enter the room first.
</li>
<li>Silence is also common in meetings where someone disagrees with another but remains quiet so as to not cause a loss of face.
</li>
<li>Relationships are critical to successful business partnerships. Always invest time in building a good relationship based on both personal and business lines. Any initial meeting should be solely used as a "getting to know you" meeting.
</li>
<li>The spoken word is very important. Never make promises that you can not keep to as this will lead to a loss of face.
</li>
<li>Negotiations can be slow so it is important to bear in mind that decisions have to go through a lot of red tape and also group consultation. Be patient.
</li>
<li>Business gift giving is fairly common at the end of a meeting or during a meal in honour of your business associates. Gifts should be small but not expensive. Something with your company logo or something typical from your country both make excellent gifts.</li>
</ul>
<div style="font-family: inherit;">
66557DPQPPGY</div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-50704514910868055972012-04-16T18:47:00.000-07:002012-05-29T22:37:22.564-07:00Culture Of El Salvador<script>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0f9CykEMrPg/T4KVcayT25I/AAAAAAAAAM4/9elx0MBzz0w/s1600/el+salvador.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="266" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0f9CykEMrPg/T4KVcayT25I/AAAAAAAAAM4/9elx0MBzz0w/s400/el+salvador.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<b>Language in El Salvador</b><br />
Spanish is the
main and official language of El Salvador. The local Spanish
vernacular is called Caliche. Nahuat is the indigenous language that
has survived, though it is only used by small communities of elderly
Salvadorans in western El Salvador.<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>Society and Culture</b><br />
Many Spanish who settled the country intermarried with the native
Indian population and thus the main group are the ‘mestizos’ (mixed
European and Indian blood). Only 9% are pure European and usually belong
to the wealthiest families; and the remaining 1% are native Indian.
The largest native Indian group is the Pipíl. They continue to believe
in the traditional gods. <br />
<br />
<br />
<div>
</div>
<b>Machismo</b><br />
<br />
Machismo survives in a culture where traditional gender roles remain.
The man is the breadwinner and the wife looks after the home. From
birth, children are raised to understand that they will have different
roles and expectations in life. <br />
<br />
Attitudes have begun to change
although machismo is still deeply rooted. More middle- and upper-class
females now go to work, although they are still generally relegated to
clerical or support positions. However, women are increasingly becoming
doctors, dentists, or teachers. When this will carry over into the
business world remains to be seen. <br />
<br />
Etiquette and Customs in El Salvador <b>Meeting and Greeting</b><br />
<ul>
<li>Salvadoran women often pat each other on the right forearm or shoulder, rather than shake hands. </li>
<li>Close friends may hug and kiss on the right cheek. </li>
<li>Men shake hands with other men and with women, although they wait for the woman to extend her hand. </li>
<li>While
shaking hands, use the appropriate greeting for the time of day:
"buenos dias"(good morning), "buenas tardes" (good afternoon), or
"buenas noches" (good evening). </li>
<li>In many ways El Salvador is a formal culture where only close friends and family use first names. </li>
<li>Refer
to people by the appropriate honorific title (Senor or Senora) and
their surname until invited to move to a first name basis. </li>
</ul>
<b>Gift Giving Etiquette</b><br />
<ul>
<li>Salvadorians give gifts for birthdays, Christmas or New Year, as well as religious events in a person’s life. </li>
<li>A young girl’s 15th birthday is considered a special date and is much celebrated. </li>
<li>If invited to an Ecuadorian home, bring flowers, good quality spirits, pastries, imported sweets for the hosts. </li>
<li>A bouquet of roses is always well received. </li>
<li>Do not give lilies or marigolds as they are used at funerals. </li>
<li>Do not give scissors or knives as they indicate you want to sever the relationship. </li>
<li>If you know the person well, perfume is an excellent gift. </li>
<li>Gifts are generally opened when received. </li>
</ul>
<b>Dining Etiquette</b><br />
<ul>
<li>Salvadorans enjoy socializing and are extremely hospitable. </li>
<li>
It is rude to leave immediately after eating; you are expected to stay
for at least an hour after dinner to converse with your hosts and the
other guests. </li>
<li>Never arrive on time when invited to a
home. Although it may sound strange you should arrive a little later
than invited, i.e. 30 -45 minutes late. </li>
<li>Dress well as this affords the host respect. </li>
<li>Don’t discuss business at social events unless prompted to. </li>
<li>It is considered good manners to reciprocate any social invitation. </li>
<li>Table manners are Continental -- the fork is held in the left hand and the knife in the right while eating. </li>
<li>Guests are served first. </li>
<li>The host says "buen provecho" ("enjoy" or "have a good meal") as an invitation to start eating. </li>
<li>Food is always eaten with utensils. Even fruit is eaten with a knife and fork. </li>
<li>It is considered polite to leave a small amount of food on your plate when you have finished eating. </li>
<li>Meals are social occasions and can be quite lengthy. </li>
<li>Expect lively conversation during the meal. </li>
<li>Wait for a toast to be made before taking the first sip of your drink. </li>
<li>The host makes the first toast. The most common toast is "Salud!" </li>
<li>When you lift your glass, look at the person being toasted. </li>
<li>If you do not want to drink more, leave your glass one-quarter full. </li>
</ul>
Business Protocol and Etiquette <b>Meeting Etiquette</b><br />
<ul>
<li>Salvadorians are relatively formal in their business dealings. </li>
<li>Shake hands when meeting someone and also when leaving. </li>
<li>Handshakes are generally not very firm. </li>
<li>A man extends his hand to a woman. </li>
<li>Maintain eye contact when greeting people. </li>
<li>Professional
or academic titles with the surname are used in business. Common
titles are "Doctor" (medical doctor or Ph.D.), "Ingeniero" (engineer),
"Arquitecto" (architect), and "Abogado" (lawyer). </li>
<li>If someone does not have a title, the honorific Senor or Senora is used with the surname. </li>
<li>Always wait until invited before moving to a first-name basis. </li>
<li>Business cards are exchanged during the initial introductions. </li>
<li>Try to have one side of your business card translated into Spanish. </li>
</ul>
<b>Communication Style</b><br />
<br />
Like most relationship orientated cultures, Salvadorans have a
strong sense of personal pride, honour and dignity. They can be very
sensitive to comments or action that can jeopardize their standing
among others. It is therefore important to watch what is being said,
how it is being said and who is being said within earshot of. If you
think you may have offended someone it is best to apologise immediately
and assure them that no slight was intended. If you feel something you
have said may have been misinterpreted, clearly re-state the position
using different formula of words. <br />
<br />
Due to the need to protect
face Salvadorans are indirect communicators. If you are from a direct
culture you may wish to moderate your communication style to avoid
coming across as rude or abrasive. For example, disagreements and
criticism should be handled in private, away from others. <br />
<br />
As
a result of being indirect Salvadorans may avoid telling the absolute
truth if doing so might upset the person. For example, a simple “yes”
may not mean ‘yes’ but indicate that the listener agrees or is merely
acknowledging a point. It is important to learn to ask questions in
several ways to ensure that you understand the response. <br />
<br />
<b>Business Meetings</b><br />
<br />
At a first meeting, introduce senior people first and according to
rank. Use titles for both your own personnel and your Salvadorian
counterparts. <br />
<br />
Meetings are structured. They generally start on
time and run according to an agenda. Initial meetings will be spent
indulging in conversation unrelated to business. It is important to
invest this time in building a rapport and firming up the relationship.
It is not uncommon for business discussions to be continued over a
meal. If you are invited to share a meal you must accept as this is a
sign the relationship is going places. <br />
<br />
Decisions are
generally made by the most senior person. Whether or not decisions are
reached after consultation with key stakeholders is a matter of
personal preference rather than a cultural nuance. Salvadorans place
greater emphasis on their ‘gut-feeling’ rather than on facts and
figures.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-73466085832237331582012-04-11T03:14:00.003-07:002013-11-21T15:32:47.871-08:00History Of Indonesia<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-S-uQyP0ux5A/T4VZghbFEtI/AAAAAAAAAQk/-MGMvW6jbWg/s1600/indonesia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="213" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-S-uQyP0ux5A/T4VZghbFEtI/AAAAAAAAAQk/-MGMvW6jbWg/s320/indonesia.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
GeographyIndonesia is an
archipelago in Southeast Asia consisting of 17,000 islands (6,000
inhabited) and straddling the equator. The largest islands are
Sumatra, Java (the most populous), Bali, Kalimantan (Indonesia's
part of Borneo), Sulawesi (Celebes), the Nusa Tenggara islands, the
Moluccas Islands, and Irian Jaya (also called West Papua), the
western part of New Guinea. Its neighbor to the north is Malaysia
and to the east is Papua New Guinea. <br />
<div class="paragraph" style="text-align: left;">
<br />
Indonesia, part of the
“ring of fire,” has the largest number of active volcanoes in the
world. Earthquakes are frequent. Wallace's line, a zoological
demarcation between Asian and Australian flora and fauna, divides
Indonesia. </div>
<div>
</div>
GovernmentRepublic. <br />
<br />
HistoryThe
17,000 islands that make up Indonesia were home to a diversity of
cultures and indigenous beliefs when the islands came under the
influence of Hindu priests and traders in the first and second
centuries A.D. Muslim invasions began in the 13th century, and
most of the archipelago had converted to Islam by the 15th century.
Portuguese traders arrived early in the next century but were ousted
by the Dutch around 1595. The Dutch United East India Company
established posts on the island of Java, in an effort to control the
spice trade. <br />
<br />
After Napoléon subjugated the Netherlands
in 1811, the British seized the islands but returned them to the Dutch
in 1816. In 1922, Indonesia was made an integral part of the Dutch
kingdom. During World War II, Japan seized the islands. Tokyo was
primarily interested in Indonesia's oil, which was vital to the war
effort, and tolerated fledgling nationalists such as Sukarno and
Mohammed Hatta. After Japan's surrender, Sukarno and Hatta
proclaimed Indonesian independence on Aug. 17, 1945. Allied troops,
mostly British Indian forces, fought nationalist militias to
reassert the prewar status quo until the arrival of Dutch troops. <br />
<br />
<b>Dutch Recognize Indonesia's Independence</b><br />
In
Nov. 1946, a draft agreement on forming a Netherlands-Indonesian
Union was reached, but differences in interpretation resulted in
more fighting between Dutch and nationalist forces. Following a
bitter war for independence, leaders on both sides agreed to terms
of a union on Nov. 2, 1949. The transfer of sovereignty took place
in Amsterdam on Dec. 27, 1949. In Feb. 1956, Indonesia abrogated the
union and began seizing Dutch property in the islands. <br />
<br />
In 1963,
Netherlands New Guinea (the Dutch portion of the island of New
Guinea) was transferred to Indonesia and renamed West Irian, which
became Irian Jaya in 1973 and West Papua in 2000. Hatta and Sukarno,
the cofathers of Indonesian independence, split over Sukarno's
concept of “guided democracy,” and under Sukarno's rule the
Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) steadily increased its influence. <br />
<br />
Sukarno
was named president for life in 1966. He enjoyed mass support for
his policies, but a growing power struggle between the military and
the PKI loomed over his government. After an attempted military coup
was put down by army chief of staff, General Suharto, and officers
loyal to him, Suharto's forces killed hundreds of thousands of
suspected Communists in a massive purge aimed at undermining
Sukarno's rule<br />
<br />
<b>Suharto Assumes Control and Brings a Measure of Stability</b><br />
<br />
Suharto
took over the reins of government and gradually eased Sukarno out
of office, completing his consolidation of power in 1967. Under
Suharto the military assumed an overarching role in national
affairs, and relations with the West were enhanced. Indonesia's
economy improved dramatically and national elections were permitted,
although the opposition was so tightly controlled as to virtually choke
off dissent. <br />
<br />
<b>Indonesia Annexes East Timor</b><br />
In
1975, Indonesia invaded the former Portuguese half of the island of
Timor; it seized the territory in 1976. A separatist movement
developed at once. Unlike the rest of Indonesia, which had been a
Dutch colony, East Timor was governed by the Portuguese for 400 years,
and while 90% of Indonesians are Muslim, the East Timorese are
primarily Catholic. More than 200,000 Timorese are reported to have
died from famine, disease, and fighting since the annexation. In
1996, two East Timorese resistance activists, Bishop Carlos Filipe
Ximenes Belo and José Ramos-Horta, received the Nobel Peace Prize. <br />
<br />
In
the summer of 1997, Indonesia suffered a major economic setback,
along with most other Asian economies. Banks failed and the value of
Indonesia's currency, the rupiah, plummeted. Antigovernment
demonstrations and riots broke out, directed mainly at the country's
prosperous ethnic Chinese. As the economic crisis deepened, student
demonstrators occupied the national parliament, demanding Suharto's
ouster. On May 21, 1998, Suharto stepped down, ending 32 years of
rule, and handed over power to Vice President B. J. Habibie. <br />
<br />
June
7, 1999, marked Indonesia's first free parliamentary election since
1955. The ruling Golkar Party took a backseat to the Indonesian
Democratic Party-Struggle (PDI-P), led by Megawati Sukarnoputri, the
daughter of Sukarno, Indonesia's first president. <br />
<br />
<b>East Timor Gains Independence</b><br />
The
ethnic, religious, and political tensions kept in check during
Suharto's 32 years of authoritarian rule erupted in the months
following his downfall. Rioting and violence shook the provinces of
Aceh, Ambon (in the Moluccas), Borneo, and Irian Jaya. But nowhere
was the violence more brutal and unjust than in East Timor. Habibie
unexpectedly ended 25 years of Indonesian intransigence by
announcing in Feb. 1999 that he was willing to hold a referendum on East
Timorese independence. Twice rescheduled because of violence, a
UN-organized referendum took place on Aug. 30, 1999, with 78.5% of the
population voting to secede from Indonesia. In the days following
the election, pro-Indonesian militias and Indonesian soldiers
massacred civilians and forced a third of the population out of the
region. After enormous international pressure, the government, which
was either unwilling or unable to stop the violent rampage, finally
agreed to allow UN forces into East Timor on Sept. 12, 1999. East
Timor achieved independence on May 20, 2002. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Unrest Plagues Wahid's Tenure as President</b><br />
On
Oct. 20, 1999, in a surprising upset, the Indonesian parliament
elected Abdurrahman Wahid as the new president of Indonesia,
defeating Megawati Sukarnoputri, the popular leader of the
Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle. Wahid was a Sufi cleric as well as
an adept politician with a reputation for honesty and moderation. <br />
<br />
Rioting,
bombing, and growing unrest continued to plague Indonesia in 2000.
On June 4, 2000, separatists declared Irian Jaya (also called West
Papua) an independent state. Wahid flatly opposed independence for
the province, which contains sizable copper and gold mines. Unlike
East Timor, there is little international support for an independent
Irian Jaya. <br />
<br />
In fall 2000, Suharto failed twice to show up in
court to face corruption charges of embezzling $570 million in state
funds, but his lawyers insisted he was too ill to stand trial. In
July 2007, prosecutors filed a civil suit against Suharto, seeking
$440 million that he had embezzled and $1.1 billion in damages. <br />
<br />
In
the fall of 2000 and winter of 2001, President Wahid came under
increasing criticism for corruption and incompetence. He was blamed
for not stopping ethnic clashes and killings in Aceh, Irian Jaya,
the Moluccas Islands, and especially in Borneo, where the Dayak
people turned against Madurese immigrants, slaughtering hundreds.
Wahid was forced from power in July 2001, and Vice President
Megawati Sukarnoputri assumed the helm. <br />
<br />
<b>Terrorists Attack Bali Nightclub</b><br />
A
terrorist bombing on Oct. 12, 2002, at a nightclub in Bali killed
more than 200 people, mostly tourists. In 2003, Amrozi bin Nurhasyim
and Imam Samudra, members of Jemaah Islamiyah, an Islamic terrorist
group linked to al-Qaeda, were sentenced to death for their roles
in the bombing. But the radical Muslim cleric Abu Bakar Bashir,
believed to be the head of Jemaah Islamiyah, was only given a light
three-year sentence on lesser charges, causing some in the
international community to question Indonesia's commitment to fighting
terrorism. Authorities arrested Bashir in April 2004—on the same day
he was set to be released from prison—claiming they had new evidence
that proved he is in fact the leader of Jemaah Islamiyah and that
he approved the Bali bombing. In March 2005, he was found not guilty
of terrorism charges in the bombings of Jakarta's Marriott Hotel in
2003 and the Bali nightclub. He was, however, convicted of a lesser
charge—criminal conspiracy. That charge was overturned in Dec.
2006. <br />
<br />
In May 2003, President Megawati declared military rule
in Aceh and launched an offensive intended to destroy the Free Aceh
Movement. The invasion marked the end of a cease-fire that was
signed in Dec. 2002 between the Indonesian government and Aceh
separatists. The government and the separatists signed a peace treaty in
Aug. 2005, ending the 30-year war that had claimed the lives of
15,000 people. The Acehnese agreed to give up their demand for
independence in exchange for the right to establish political
parties. The separatists disbanded their army in December,
finalizing the end to their insurgency. <br />
<br />
Megawati's PDI-P Party
fared poorly in April 2004 elections, placing second behind the
Golkar Party of former president Suharto. In July, retired general
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono placed first in the country's inaugural
direct presidential elections, but he did not garner enough votes to
win outright. However, he soundly defeated Megawati in the
September runoff. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Natural Disasters Ravage Indonesia</b>On
Dec. 26, 2004, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake, whose epicenter was off
the west coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, caused a
tremendously powerful tsunami in the Indian Ocean that devastated 12
Asian countries. At least 225,000 people died in the disaster, and
millions were left homeless. Indonesia was the heaviest hit, with
more than 150,000 casualties. Many of the deaths occurred in the
war-torn province of Aceh. <br />
<br />
On May 26, 2006, more than 6,200
people were killed in a 6.3 magnitude earthquake on Java. About
130,000 were left homeless. Just two months later, on July 17, an
earthquake and tsunami struck Java, killing more than 500 people. It
was the fourth major earthquake to strike the country in 19 months.
<br />
<br />
Floods ravaged Jakarta in Feb. 2007, killing about 30 people and leaving approximately 340,000 homeless. <br />
<br />
Suharto
died on January 27, 2008, after spending most of the month in the
hospital for heart, lung, and kidney ailments. At his death, a civil
suit, which was filed in 2007 and sought $440 million that he had
embezzled and $1.1 billion in damages, was still pending. He was
never criminally charged for embezzlement or for the deaths of
approximately 500,000 people who died in the purge of suspected
Communists in the late 1960s. The United Nations has called Suharto
the most corrupt contemporary leader. <br />
<br />
Amrozi bin Nurhasyim,
Imam Samudra, and Mukhlas, also known as Ali Ghufron, were executed
by firing squad in November 2008 for their role in the 2002 bombing
at a nightclub in Bali that killed 202 people, mostly tourists. <br />
<br />
In
parliamentary elections on April 9, 2009, President Susilo Bambang
Yudhoyono's Democratic Party increased its share of the vote total from
elections held in 2004. At the same time, support for Indonesia's
Islamic parties fell to about 20% from 38%. The results were welcomed
in the West as a sign that Indonesia was embracing moderate democracy
rather than Islamic extremism. Yudhoyono won reelection in a landslide
in July's presidential election.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-63734040546981281702012-04-11T03:12:00.002-07:002012-05-08T22:54:33.381-07:00History Of Australia<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-S-_9K3lJfzA/T4VY7hRDopI/AAAAAAAAAQc/MXEIFBL7F8c/s1600/australia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-S-_9K3lJfzA/T4VY7hRDopI/AAAAAAAAAQc/MXEIFBL7F8c/s320/australia.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Geography</span></span><br />
<div class="paragraph" style="text-align: left;">
The
continent of Australia, with the island state of Tasmania, is
approximately equal in area to the United States (excluding Alaska
and Hawaii). Mountain ranges run from north to south along the east
coast, reaching their highest point in Mount Kosciusko (7,308 ft;
2,228 m). The western half of the continent is occupied by a desert
plateau that rises into barren, rolling hills near the west coast.
The Great Barrier Reef, extending about 1,245 mi (2,000 km), lies along
the northeast coast. The island of Tasmania (26,178 sq mi; 67,800 sq
km) is off the southeast coast. </div>
<div class="paragraph" style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Government Democracy</span></span><br />
Symbolic
executive power is vested in the British monarch, who is
represented throughout Australia by the governor-general. <br />
<br />
HistoryThe
first inhabitants of Australia were the Aborigines, who migrated
there at least 40,000 years ago from Southeast Asia. There may have
been between a half million to a full million Aborigines at the time
of European settlement; today about 350,000 live in Australia. <br />
<br />
Dutch,
Portuguese, and Spanish ships sighted Australia in the 17th
century; the Dutch landed at the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1606. In
1616 the territory became known as New Holland. The British arrived
in 1688, but it was not until Captain James Cook's voyage in 1770
that Great Britain claimed possession of the vast island, calling it New
South Wales. A British penal colony was set up at Port Jackson
(what is now Sydney) in 1788, and about 161,000 transported English
convicts were settled there until the system was suspended in 1839. <br />
<br />
Free
settlers and former prisoners established six colonies: New South
Wales (1786), Tasmania (then Van Diemen's Land) (1825), Western
Australia (1829), South Australia (1834), Victoria (1851), and
Queensland (1859). Various gold rushes attracted settlers, as did the
mining of other minerals. Sheep farming and grain soon grew into
important economic enterprises. The six colonies became states and
in 1901 federated into the Commonwealth of Australia with a
constitution that incorporated British parliamentary and U.S.
federal traditions. Australia became known for its liberal
legislation: free compulsory education, protected trade unionism
with industrial conciliation and arbitration, the secret ballot,
women's suffrage, maternity allowances, and sickness and old-age
pensions<br />
<br />
<br />
<b> From the World Wars to the End of the Millennium </b><br />
Australia
fought alongside Britain in World War I, notably with the Australia
and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) in the Dardanelles campaign
(1915). Participation in World War II helped Australia forge closer
ties to the United States. Parliamentary power in the second half of
the 20th century shifted between three political parties: the
Australian Labour Party, the Liberal Party, and the National Party.
Australia relaxed its discriminatory immigration laws in the 1960s
and 1970s, which favored Northern Europeans. Thereafter, about 40% of
its immigrants came from Asia, diversifying a population that was
predominantly of English and Irish heritage. An Aboriginal movement
that grew in the 1960s gained full citizenship and improved
education for the country's poorest socioeconomic group. <br />
<br />
In
March 1996, the opposition Liberal Party–National Party coalition
easily won the national elections, removing the Labour Party after
13 years in power. Pressure from the new, conservative One Nation
Party threatened to reduce the gains made by Aborigines and to limit
immigration. <br />
<br />
In Sept. 1999, Australia led the international
peacekeeping force sent to restore order in East Timor after
pro-Indonesian militias began massacring civilians to thwart East
Timor's referendum on independence. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b> Changes in Immigration Policy </b><br />
John
Howard won a third term in Nov. 2001, primarily as the result of
his tough policy against illegal immigration. This policy has also
brought him considerable criticism: refugees attempting to enter
Australia—most of them from Afghanistan, Iran, and Iraq and
numbering about 5,000 annually—have been imprisoned in bleak
detention camps and subjected to a lengthy immigration process.
Asylum-seekers have staged riots and hunger strikes. Howard has also
dealt with refugees through the “Pacific solution,” which reroutes
boat people from Australian shores to camps in Papua New Guinea and
Nauru. In 2004, however, the government began easing its policies on
immigration. <br />
<br />
<b> Australia on the International Stage as Peacekeeper </b>Prime
Minister Howard sent 2,000 Australian troops to fight alongside
American and British troops in the 2003 Iraq war, despite strong
opposition among Australians. <br />
<br />
In July 2003, Australia
successfully restored order to the Solomon Islands, which had
descended into lawlessness during a brutal civil war. <br />
<br />
Australian
citizens have been the victims of two significant terrorist attacks
in recent years: the 2002 Bali, Indonesia, bombings by a group with
ties to al-Qaeda in which 202 died, many of whom were Australian,
and the 2004 attack on the Australian embassy in Indonesia, which
killed ten. <br />
<br />
In Oct. 2004, Howard won a fourth term as prime
minister. When rival security forces in East Timor began fighting each
other in 2006, Australia sent 3,000 peacekeeping troops to stem the
violence. Howard was defeated by the Labor Party's Kevin Rudd in
elections in Nov. 2007. Rudd campaigned on a platform for change,
and promised to focus on the environment, education, and healthcare.
Observers predicted Rudd would maintain a close relationship with
the United States. The military began withdrawing Australia’s 550
troops from Iraq in June 2008, following through on a promise made
by Rudd. <br />
<br />
The worst wildfires in Australian history killed at
least 181 people in the state of Victoria, injured more than a
hundred, and destroyed more than 900 houses in Feb. 2009. At least
one of the fires was determined to be the work of arsonists.
Australian officials were criticized for failing to evacuate those
in danger. A government inquiry was requested to research the
state's response to the fires. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b> Australia Elects Its First Female Prime Minister </b><br />
Rudd's
popularity plummeted in May 2010, largely because he shelved his
environmental policy that centered on an emissions-trading system. In
June, the Labor Party ousted him as its leader and elected his deputy,
Julia Gillard. She became Australia's first female prime minister in
June and promptly called for elections, which were held in August. They
resulted in a hung parliament, with neither the incumbent Labor Party
nor the conservative Liberal-National coalition, led by Tony Abbott,
taking a majority of seats. It is the country's first hung parliament
in 70 years. After several weeks of attempting to woo members of
parliament to her side, Gillard succeeded in early September, when two
independents backed her. It was enough to give her the slimmest
majority: 76 out of 150 seats. <br />
<br />
<b> Worst Flooding in Decades </b><br />
In
Jan. 2011, the worst flooding for decades in Queensland cut off many
cities and towns. The floods left more than 30 people dead and caused
billions of dollars in damage to mines, farms, and cities. Coal mining
operations in the Australian state were severely hampered. The flood
affected about 200,000 people and covered an area larger than France
and Germany combined. Prime Minister Gillard started off the New Year
by visiting the ravaged state. In April, Queensland urban areas were
plagued with extremely large numbers of flying beetles, a likely result
of the floods. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b> U.S. Establishes Military Presence </b>Nov.
2011 saw Barack Obama in Canberra where he announced a new American
military presence near the port city of Darwin, "Australia's Pearl
Harbor." Marines will be gradually deployed over the coming years, to a
total strength of 2,500. Mr. Obama's speech established his commitment
to "a larger and long-term role" in shaping the region, which will
include providing humanitarian relief and responding to security issues
in Southeast Asia and the South China Sea.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-17270501668142161952012-04-10T03:10:00.000-07:002012-05-08T22:55:17.697-07:00History Of Argentina<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5UlYgKZXJ40/T4VYXr9g-AI/AAAAAAAAAQU/rA24uWQhHwU/s1600/ARGENTINA.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="192" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5UlYgKZXJ40/T4VYXr9g-AI/AAAAAAAAAQU/rA24uWQhHwU/s320/ARGENTINA.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Geography</span></span><br />
<div class="paragraph" style="text-align: left;">
Second
in South America only to Brazil in size and population, Argentina
is a plain, rising from the Atlantic to the Chilean border and the
towering Andes peaks. Aconcagua (22,834 ft, 6,960 m) is the highest
peak in the world outside Asia. Argentina is also bordered by
Bolivia and Paraguay on the north, and by Uruguay and Brazil on the
east. The northern area is the swampy and partly wooded Gran Chaco,
bordering Bolivia and Paraguay. South of that are the rolling, fertile
Pampas, which are rich in agriculture and sheep- and cattle-grazing
and support most of the population. Further south is Patagonia, a
region of cool, arid steppes with some wooded and fertile</div>
<div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Government Republic. </span></span><br />
<br />
HistoryFirst
explored in 1516 by Juan Diaz de Solis, Argentina developed slowly
under Spanish colonial rule. Buenos Aires was settled in 1580; the
cattle industry was thriving as early as 1600. Invading British
forces were expelled in 1806&mdash;1807, and after Napoleon
conquered Spain (1808), the Argentinians set up their own government
in 1810. On July 9, 1816, independence was formally declared. <br />
<br />
As
it had in World War I, Argentina proclaimed neutrality at the
outbreak of World War II, but in the closing phase declared war on
the Axis powers on March 27, 1945. Juan D. Peron, an army colonel,
emerged as the strongman of the postwar era, winning the
presidential elections of 1946 and 1951. Peron's political strength was
reinforced by his second wife—Eva Duarte de Peron (Evita)—and
her popularity with the working classes. Although she never held a
government post, Evita acted as de facto minister of health and
labor, establishing a national charitable organization, and awarding
generous wage increases to the unions, who responded with political
support for Peron. Opposition to Peron's increasing
authoritarianism led to a coup by the armed forces, which sent Peron
into exile in 1955, three years after Evita's death. Argentina
entered a long period of military dictatorships with brief intervals
of constitutional government. <br />
<br />
The former dictator returned
to power in 1973 and his third wife, Isabel Martinez de Peron, was
elected vice president. After her husband's death in 1974, Peron
became the hemisphere's first woman chief of state, assuming control
of a nation teetering on economic and political collapse. In 1975,
terrorist acts by left- and right-wing groups killed some 700
people. The cost of living rose 355%, and strikes and demonstrations
were constant. On March 24, 1976, a military junta led by army
commander Lt. Gen. Jorge Rafael Videla seized power and imposed
martial law.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b> The Dirty War Begins </b><br />
The
military began the "dirty war" to restore order and eradicate its
opponents. The Argentine Commission for Human Rights, in Geneva, has
charged the junta with 2,300 political murders, over 10,000
political arrests, and the disappearance of 20,000 to 30,000 people.
The economy remained in chaos. In March 1981, Videla was deposed by
Field Marshal Roberto Viola, who in turn was succeeded by Lt. Gen.
Leopoldo Galtieri. <br />
<br />
On April 2, 1982, Galtieri invaded the
British-held Falkland Islands, known as Las Islas Malvinas in Spanish,
in what was seen as an attempt to increase his popularity. Great
Britain, however, won a decisive victory, and Galtieri resigned in
disgrace three days after Argentina's surrender. Maj. Gen. Reynaldo
Bignone took over June 14, amid increasing pro-democratic public
sentiment. As the 1983 elections approached, inflation hit 900% and
Argentina's crippling foreign debt reached unprecedented levels. <br />
<br />
In
the presidential election of Oct. 1983, Raul Alfonsin, leader of
the Radical Civic Union, handed the Peronist Party its first defeat
since its founding. Growing unemployment and quadruple-digit
inflation, however, led to a Peronist victory in the elections of May
1989. Alfonsin resigned a month later in the wake of riots over high
food prices, in favor of the new Peronist president, Carlos Menem.
In 1991, Menem promoted economic austerity measures that deregulated
businesses and privatized state-owned industries. But beginning in
Sept. 1998, eight years into Menem's two-term presidency, Argentina
entered its worst recession in a decade. Menem's economic policies,
tolerance of corruption, and pardoning of military leaders involved
in the dirty war eventually lost him the support of the poor and the
working class who had elected him. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b> Dirty War Criminals Put on Trial </b><br />
In
Dec. 1999, Fernando de la Rua became president. Despite the
introduction of several tough economic austerity plans, by 2001 the
recession had slid into its third year. The IMF gave Argentina $13.7
billion in emergency aid in Jan. 2001 and $8 billion in Aug. 2001.
The international help was not enough, however, and by the end of
2001, Argentina was on the verge of economic collapse. Rioters
protesting government austerity measures forced De la Rua to resign in
Dec. 2001. Argentina then defaulted on its $155 billion foreign debt
payments, the largest such default in history. <br />
<br />
After more
instability, Congress named Eduardo Duhalde president on Jan. 1,
2002. Duhalde soon announced an economic plan devaluing the
Argentine peso, which had been pegged to the dollar for a decade.
The devaluation plunged the banking industry into crisis and wiped
out much of the savings of the middle class, plunging millions of
Argentinians into poverty. <br />
<br />
In July 2002, former junta leader
Galtieri and 42 other military officers were arrested and charged
with the torture and execution of 22 leftist guerrillas during
Argentina's 7-year military dictatorship. In recent years, judges
have found legal loopholes allowing them to circumvent the blanket
amnesty laws passed in 1986 and 1987, which allowed many accused of
atrocities during the dirty war to walk free. In June 2005, the
Supreme Court ruled that these amnesty laws were unconstitutional
and in 2006, numerous military and police officials went on trial. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Economy on the Rebound</b><br />
Peronist
Néstor Kirchner, the former governor of Santa Cruz, became
Argentina's president in May 2003, after former president Carlos
Menem abandoned the race. Kirchner vowed to aggressively reform the
courts, police, and armed services and to prosecute perpetrators of
the dirty war. Argentina's economy has been rebounding since its
near collapse in 2001, with an impressive growth rate of about 8%
since Kirchner took office. In March 2005, Kirchner announced that the
country's debt had been successfully restructured. In Jan. 2006,
Argentina paid off its remaining multi-million IMF debt early, a
dramatic move that not all economists thought was beneficial. <br />
<br />
In
October 2007, First Lady Cristina Fernández de Kirchner was elected
president, taking 45% of the vote. Elisa Carrió, a congresswoman,
placed second, with 23%. <br />
<br />
On December 10, 2007, Cristina
Fernández de Kirchner took over the presidency from her husband,
Néstor Kirchner, in a ceremony at Argentina's Congress. She kept
many of her husband's ministers, but implied that she would
introduce changes to the country during presidency. Fernandez said
she will create a new ministry for science and technology to boost
innovation, and stated that she would make "necessary corrections"
to help the inflation problem in Argentina. Although she is as much a
nationalist as her husband and refuses to get involved with the
IMF, Fernández has shown interest in forging closer ties with the
United States, Europe, and Brazil. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b> President and Vice President At Odds on Big Issues</b><br />
Farmers
protesting tax increases on export goods went on strike in early
2008, causing highways to be shut down and severe food shortages
nationwide. In July, after months of protests and strikes by the
farmers, the government, led by Vice President Cobos, sided with the
farmers and voted against the president's proposed increase on the
agricultural export tax. <br />
<br />
In November 2008, the lower house of
Parliament approved President Fernandez's controversial plan to
nationalize more than $25 billion in private pension funds.
President Fernandez asserted the move would protect pensioners'
assets during the global financial crisis, while Vice President
Cobos continued to disagree, stating it would create doubts among
investors about Argentina's investment market stability. <br />
<br />
The
dispute over the Falkland Islands between Argentina and the UK
resurfaced in February 2010 when a British oil rig began drilling near
the islands. Both countries still claim sovereignty over the Falklands,
and Argentina was outraged that it may have to confront the
embarrassing fact that England could tap vast deposits of oil so close
to its shores. Argentina responded by threatening to implement new
restrictions on British ships passing through its waters. <br />
<br />
In July 2010, Argentina became the first country in Latin America to legalize gay marriage. <br />
<br />
Former
president Nestor Kirchner and the husband of current president,
Cristina Fernandez, died suddenly of a heart attack in October. He had
been expected to run for president in 2011. <br />
<br />
In February 2011,
Argentine customs seized undeclared equipment on a United States Air
Force cargo plane. The plane was carrying materials for an Argentina
federal police training course. Customs officials described the seized
equipment as machine guns, ammo, drugs such as morphine, and spy
equipment. Argentina accused the United States military of bringing in
guns and surveillance equipment under the guise of a training course.
The incident created a diplomatic rift between the two countries. <br />
<br />
In
June 2011, President Fernandez announced that she was running for
re-election. Polls showed that even though President Fernandez lacks
majority support, she might easily win the first-round vote on Oct. 23
because the opposition is so divided. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b> President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner Easily Wins Second Term</b><br />
On
October 23, 2011, President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner was easily
re-elected for a second term. Her victory came just two years after her
approval rating fell below 30 percent due to her unpopular combative
leadership style, which came under scrutiny during a dispute over
agricultural export taxes. However, Argentina is currently undergoing
an economic boom despite economists' predictions that the plan put into
place by Fernández's late husband, former President Néstor Kirchner,
was doomed. <br />
<br />
That economic plan, which relies heavily on
government subsidies, has been further orchestrated by President
Fernández. Argentina's economy is expected to grow 8 percent in 2011,
making it the fastest growing country in Latin America. Since 2007, the
poverty rate has been cut by more than half. The employment rate has
reached record highs and the country's agricultural products are in
strong demand from China. <br />
<br />
In this election, voters looked past
red flags such as rising inflation. In 2010, inflation rose over 20
percent, second only to Venezuela in Latin America. Clearly what
mattered most to voters was a booming economy. President Fernández won
with 54 percent of the vote. Her closest opponent received 17 percent.
With a margin of 37 percent, it was the widest victory since Argentina
restored its democracy in 1983. <br />
<br />
In December 2011, a spokesman
for President Fernández announced that she had thyroid cancer and would
undergo surgery on January 4. During a televised address the spokesman
said there was "no existence of metastasis." The announcement came
less than two months after Fernández was re-elected to a new four-year
term. In 2010, Argentina was shocked when Fernández's husband, the
country's previous president, died of a heart attack at age 60. The
news of Fernández's diagnosis also shook up a country that has long
revered Eva "Evita" Peron, wife of legendary leader Juan Peron. Peron
died of cancer in 1952 at age 33. Like Eva Peron, Fernández is popular
for her efforts to help the impoverished. <br />
<br />
President Fernández
was one of several leaders in the region recently diagnosed with
cancer. President Dilma Rousseff of Brazil was treated for lymphoma in
2009. In 2010, Paraguay's president, Fernando Lugo, was treated for
non-Hodgkins lymphoma. Venezuela's Hugo Chávez underwent treatment for
an undisclosed type of cancer in 2011. In early January 2012, President
Fernández's surgery was carried out without complications, putting her
on course to return to work as planned later in the month. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b> Supreme Court Makes Historic Ruling on Abortion </b><br />
In
March 2012, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that rape victims can
get an abortion. The ruling was historic because most abortions are
illegal in Argentina. Before the ruling, a judge had to decide, case by
case, which victims could get abortions. Typically, a judge ruled for
the abortion only if the woman had mental disabilities. The new rule
allowed any victim of rape to receive an abortion without a court
order.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2254210207579423721.post-74801059044512619232012-04-10T03:07:00.000-07:002012-05-08T22:55:59.221-07:00History Of Brazil<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hHu3mrJFW-Y/T4VXutCYjMI/AAAAAAAAAQM/7sLtZqx134w/s1600/brazil.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="213" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hHu3mrJFW-Y/T4VXutCYjMI/AAAAAAAAAQM/7sLtZqx134w/s320/brazil.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Geography Brazil</span></span><br />
<div class="paragraph" style="text-align: left;">
covers nearly half of South America and is the continent's largest
nation. It extends 2,965 mi (4,772 km) north-south, 2,691 mi (4,331
km) east-west, and borders every nation on the continent except
Chile and Ecuador. Brazil may be divided into the Brazilian
Highlands, or plateau, in the south and the Amazon River Basin in
the north. Over a third of Brazil is drained by the Amazon and its more
than 200 tributaries. The Amazon is navigable for ocean steamers to
Iquitos, Peru, 2,300 mi (3,700 km) upstream. Southern Brazil is
drained by the Plata system—the Paraguay, Uruguay, and Paraná
rivers.</div>
<div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Government Federal republic. </span></span><br />
<br />
HistoryBrazil
is the only Latin American nation that derives its language and
culture from Portugal. The native inhabitants mostly consisted of
the nomadic Tupí-Guaraní Indians. Adm. Pedro Alvares Cabral claimed
the territory for Portugal in 1500. The early explorers brought back
a wood that produced a red dye, <i>pau-brasil,</i> from which the land received its name. Portugal began colonization in 1532 and made the area a royal colony in 1549. <br />
<br />
During
the Napoleonic Wars, King João VI, fearing the advancing French
armies, fled Portugal in 1808 and set up his court in Rio de
Janeiro. João was drawn home in 1820 by a revolution, leaving his
son as regent. When Portugal tried to reimpose colonial rule, the
prince declared Brazil's independence on Sept. 7, 1822, becoming
Pedro I, emperor of Brazil. Harassed by his parliament, Pedro I
abdicated in 1831 in favor of his five-year-old son, who became emperor
in 1840 (Pedro II). The son was a popular monarch, but discontent
built up, and in 1889, following a military revolt, he abdicated.
Although a republic was proclaimed, Brazil was ruled by military
dictatorships until a revolt permitted a gradual return to stability
under civilian presidents. <br />
<br />
President Wenceslau Braz
cooperated with the Allies and declared war on Germany during World
War I. In World War II, Brazil again cooperated with the Allies,
welcoming Allied air bases, patrolling the South Atlantic, and
joining the invasion of Italy after declaring war on the Axis
powers. <br />
<br />
After a military coup in 1964, Brazil had a series
of military governments. Gen. João Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo
became president in 1979 and pledged a return to democracy in 1985.
The election of Tancredo Neves on Jan. 15, 1985, the first civilian
president since 1964, brought a nationwide wave of optimism, but when
Neves died several months later, Vice President José Sarney became
president. Collor de Mello won the election of late 1989, pledging to
lower hyperinflation with free-market economics. When Collor faced
impeachment by Congress because of a corruption scandal in Dec. 1992
and resigned, Vice President Itamar Franco assumed the presidency. <br />
<br />
A
former finance minister, Fernando Cardoso, won the presidency in
the Oct. 1994 election with 54% of the vote. Cardoso sold off
inefficient government-owned monopolies in the telecommunications,
electrical power, port, mining, railway, and banking industries. <br />
<br />
In
Jan. 1999, the Asian economic crisis spread to Brazil. Rather than
prop up the currency through financial markets, Brazil opted to let
the currency float, which sent the real plummeting—at one time as
much as 40%. Cardoso was highly praised by the international
community for quickly turning around his country's economic crisis.
Despite his efforts, however, the economy remained sluggish throughout
2001, and the country also faced an energy crisis. The IMF offered
Brazil an additional aid package in Aug. 2001. And in Aug. 2002, to
ensure that Brazil would not be dragged down by neighboring
Argentina's catastrophic economic problems, the IMF agreed to lend
Brazil a phenomenal $30 billion over fifteen months. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>The Lula Administration Oversees Economic and Social Reform</b><br />
In
Jan. 2003, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, a former trade union leader
and factory worker widely known by the name Lula, became Brazil's
first working-class president. As leader of Brazil's only Socialist
party, the Workers' Party, Lula pledged to increase social services
and improve the lot of the poor. But he also recognized that a
distinctly nonsocialist program of fiscal austerity was needed to rescue
the economy. The president's first major legislative success was a
plan to reform the country's debt-ridden pension system, which
operated under an annual $20 billion deficit. Civil servants staged
massive strikes opposing this and other reforms. Although public
debt and inflation remained a problem in 2004, Brazil's economy
showed signs of growth and unemployment was down. Polls in Aug. 2004
demonstrated that the majority of Brazilians supported Lula's tough
economic reform efforts. He combined his conservative fiscal
policies with ambitious antipoverty programs, raising the country's
minimum wage by 25% and introducing an ambitious social welfare
program, <i>Bolsa Familia, </i> which has pulled 36 million people (20% of the population) out of deep poverty. <br />
<br />
In
2005, an unfolding bribery scandal weakened Lula's administration
and led to the resignation of several high government officials.
Lula issued a televised apology in August, promising “drastic
measures” to reform the political system. By the following year, his
popularity had rebounded as he continued a successful balancing act
between fiscal responsibility and a strong social welfare system.
But after another corruption scandal surfaced right before the Oct.
2006 election, Lula won only 48.6% of the vote, forcing a runoff
election on Oct. 29 in which Lula garnered 60.8% of the vote, retaining
his office. <br />
<br />
A new oil field, called Tupi, was discovered
16,000 feet below the ocean's floor in November 2007. Tupi will yield
five to eight billion barrels of crude oil and natural gas, making it
the largest oil field discovered since Kashagan Field in Kazakhstan
in 2000. <br />
<br />
After a three-year decline, the National
Institute for Space Research reported that the deforestation rate in
Brazil during 2008 increased 228% in 2007. <br />
<br />
In October 2009, Rio
de Janeiro won the bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics, becoming the
first South American city to host the Games. Tokyo, Madrid, and
Chicago, Ill. were the other finalists in the running. <br />
<br />
<b>Brazil Elects Its First Woman President</b><br />
In
October 2010's second round of presidential elections, Dilma Rousseff,
an acolyte of Lula and his former chief of staff, defeated José Serra
56% to 44% to become the country's first woman president. Because of
term limits, Lula could not run for a third consecutive term. Rousseff
is expected to follow through with Lula's agenda, but faces the task of
improving the country's education, health, and sanitation systems. The
vote was seen as an endorsement of Lula and his social and economic
policies. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Former Student Behind Worst School Shooting Brazil Has Ever Seen</b><br />
On
April 7, 2011, A 23-year-old former student returned to his public
elementary school in Rio de Janeiro and began firing, killing 12
children and wounding 12 others, before shooting himself in the head.
While Brazil has seen gang-related violence in urban areas, this was the
worst school shooting the country has ever seen. Tasso da Silveira
elementary and middle school, the site of the shooting, is located in
the working class neighborhood of Realengo, on the west side of Rio. <br />
<br />
The
shooter, Wellington Menezes de Oliveria, age 24, entered the school
around 8 a.m., telling a teacher who recognized him that he was there
to speak to a class. Oliveira opened fire a few minutes later with a
.38-caliber pistol in one hand and a .32-caliber gun in the other. He
killed 10 girls and 2 boys. When Oliveira ignored a police officer's
order to drop his guns, the officer, Sgt. Marcio Alves, shot him in the
leg. Oliveira then shot himself in the head. A letter found in Mr.
Oliveira's pocket made it clear that he intended to die and that the
attack was premeditated, but offered no clear motive for the shootings. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Rousseff Faces Political Crisis as Top Aide Steps Down</b><br />
In
June 2011, top cabinet official Antonio Palocci resigned. President
Rousseff's chief of staff, Palocci, was accused of increasing his
personal wealth as a corporate consultant while he was also serving in
congress and coordinating Rousseff's presidential campaign. Out of the
last four chiefs of staff, Palocci was the third to resign amid
accusations. Palocci's resignation did not cease investigations which
continue to explore if there was a connection between Palocci's business
dealings and Rousseff's presidential campaign. <br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Security Measures Begin for the 2014 World Cup and the 2016 Summer Olympics</b><br />
<br />
Around
three thousand soldiers and police officers moved into Rocinha, one of
the largest slums in Rio de Janeiro, on November 13, 2011. It was part
of an operation by the government to gain control over troubled areas
in the city before the 2016 Summer Olympics and the 2014 World Cup. The
operation, named "Shock of Peace," involved military helicopters,
tanks, snipers stationed on rooftops, and police squads patrolling
alleys. <br />
<br />
Rocinha, a community of more than 80,000, is located
near some of Rio's wealthiest neighborhoods. Occupying the area was an
important step in imposing order in the city and cracking down on drug
traffickers who control most of the city's slums. Shock of Peace was
made possible by the arrest of Nem, a drug lord whose real name is
Antônio Bonfim Lopes, as well as months of gathering intelligence.Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0